UNIT F: EVOLUTION

EVOLUTION:       GENETIC CHANGE IN A POPULATION INHERITED OVER SEVERAL GENERATIONS. CHANGES CAN BE SMALL OR LARGE

BASED ON 4 PRINCIPLES:

VARIATION:        ALL LIFE FORMS VARY GENETICALLY WITHIN A POPULATION. IT IS THIS GENETIC VARIATION UPON WHICH SELECTION WORKS 

INHERITANCE:    GENETIC TRAITS ARE INHERITED FROM PARENTS AND ARE PASSED ON TO OFFSPRING

SELECTION:         ORGANISMS WITH TRAITS THAT ARE FAVORABLE TO SURVIVAL GET TO LIVE LONG ENOUGH TO REPRODUCE AND PASS ON THESE GENES TO NEXT GENERATION

TIME:                   EVOLUTION TAKES TIME. EVOLUTION CAN HAPPEN IN A FEW GENERATIONS BUT MAJOR CHANGE LIKE CREATING A NEW SPECIES (SPECIATION) TAKES LONG PERIODS OF TIME                          

Geologic Time  Earth time is divided into four main ERA's

Oldest: Precambrian from 4.6 billion years ago to about 550 million years ago

Paleozoic from 550 mya (million years ago) to 245mya

Mesozoic from 245 mya to 65 mya

Cenozoic from 65mya to the present

Eras are based on the appearance/disappearance of species

Paleonologists: study fossils

fossils: preserved evidence of ancient life in rocks. Could be a leaf, shell, bone, footprint, etc..Fossils are a big piece of evidence supporting the evolution of life. The most common method of fossilization is when dead organisms are buried by sediment and minerals in groundwater fill the cellular spaces and crystallize. The original shape of plant or animals is preserved as rock.

Natural Selection: Process evolution uses, based on following concepts:

·         Individuals in populations have different traits that can be inherited- variation

·         Individuals produce more offspring than the environment can support causing competition

·         Individuals with certain traits are more likely than others to survive and have offspring

·         The selective survival of some over others changes the genetic makeup of the population

UNIT E: ECOLOGY

ELG#1 Living things transform energy: plants trap light energy and form the base of all food chains. Energy from sunlight moves through the food web and is lost in every transformation as heat.

ELG#2: Matter that makes up organisms cycles through the environment and is transformed when it passes from one organism to another and between organisms and the environment.

ELG#3: When disturbances occur to ecosystems either naturally or by humans the results may be unpredictable and may result in entirely new ecological relationships over time.

Notes:

The following terms should be familiar to you:

Ecology: study of the relationship between living things and the environment

Population: all members of a particular species

Abiotic factor: nonliving things in environment like water

Angiosperms: plants that reproduce using a flower that produces seeds and fruit

Autotroph: organism that can make its own food

Decomposers: organisms like bacteria and fungi that feed and breakdown on dead organic matter and help recycle elements

Flower: structure for reproduction in angiosperm plants

Food chain: pathway that shows the flow of energy in eating relationships

Habitat: physical location where organisms live

Herbivore: plant eating animal, make up first consumer level in energy pyramid

Heterotroph: animal that eats other animals for food

Niche: role that species plays in ecosystem, includes their shelter, food,

Photosynthesis: process where cell uses sun energy to create food and oxygen using carbon dioxide and water

occurs in chloroplast of plant cells

Carrying capacity: maximum population that an ecosystem can support sustainably

Competition: condition caused when one organism requires the same food or shelter as another organism

consumer: organism that feeds on other living things

Pollen: male sex cell in flowering plants

predation: action where one organism kills and feeds on another organism

stomata: small openings on bottom of leaves where gases enter and leave the plant

trophic level: different feeding levels in a food chain

vascular plants: plants with tubes to transport food and water

Taxonomy: The science of classification

Levels of classification from largest to smallest: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, species

UNIT D: GENETICS

ELG#1 All living organisms contain a "blueprint" for their growth, development and maintenance, and physical appearance in the DNA that is contained in genes on their chromosomes

Genetics Vocabulary

Meiosis: process that produces 4 daughter cells each with half the chromosome number of the parent cell

Mitosis: part of cell cycle where the nucleus divides into two new nuclei and one copy of DNA is distributed into each daughter cell

Nucleotide: building blocks of the DNA molecule. Consists of a phosphate, a deoxyribose sugar and a nitrogenous base.

Asexual reproduction: reproduction involving only one parent. Offspring are identical to parents, (clones). Bacteria reproduce asexually, as can plants, protists, fungi.

Sexual reproduction: reproduction involving two parents. Offspring are never identical to parents. Mammals always reproduce sexually as do some plants and fungi and most animals.

Mutation: a change in the genes or DNA that occurs when cells copy their DNA before dividing into two cells.

Homozygous: an organism that has only one kind of allele for a characteristic. Sometimes called a purebred

Heterozygous: An organism that has two different kinds of alleles for a characteristic. Same as a hybrid

Phenotype: An organisms physical appearance or visible trait

Genotype: An organisms genetic make-up or allele combinations

Dominant trait: The trait that shows in an organism's phenotype if Only one allele for that trait is present in the genotype

Recessive trait: The trait that only shows in an organism if the dominant allele is not present. To show the recessive trait an organism must be homozygous for that trait.

DNA Structure and Replication (2/9): pages 67-68 in cells book

• DNA copies itself
• each daughter cell gets same # of chromosomes as parent cell
• Structure discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953
• Molecule shaped like a double helix (twisted ladder)
• side of ladder made up of alternating molecules of deoxyribose (sugar) and phosphate
• steps of ladder made up of pair of nitrogen bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G)
• Adenine will only bond with Thymine
• Cytosine will only bond with Guanine
• Molecule replicates by unzipping along the nitrogen bases, free floating nitrogen bases in the nucleus match up with both sides of the unzipped molecule to make two new identical DNA molecules

Binary fission: method single celled organisms like bacteria use to replicate themselves if they do not have a nucleus

Cell cycle for eukaryotic cells consists of three stages: (see cells and heredity book pg 62-66)

stage 1: Interphase - cell grows to mature size, copies DNA in process called replication, prepares to divide

stage 2: Mitosis- nucleus divides, has four parts:

Part 1: Prophase: chromatin condenses to form chromosome, spindle fibers form bridge between ends of cell, nuclear membrane breaks down

Part 2: Metaphase: chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell , chromosomes attach to spindle fibers at centromere which holds chromatids together

Part 3: Anaphase: centromeres split, two chromatids separate, each chromatid moves along spindle fiber to each end of cell

Part 4: Telophase: new nuclear membrane forms around each region of chromosomes

Stage 3:   Cytokinesis- cytoplasm divides, organellese distributed into each new cell, cell membrane squeezes together to form 2 new cells called daughter cells each with the same # of chromosomes as the parent cell

chromatid: One of the identical rods of a chromosome (pg. 63 cells book)

centromere: structure that holds the chromatids together

daughter cells: two identical cells that are formed from the parent cell during the cell cycle, each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell

UNIT C: MICRO-LIFE

ELG #1: Explain how all living things are composed of cells, from just one to many millions, whose details are usually visible only through microscopes

ELG #2: Characteristics such as size, shape, and structure are used to classify organisms

ELG #3 : Infectious diseases occur when microbes infect organisms and easily spread from one organism to another if safe hygiene practices and proper medical treatment is not followed.

ELG #4: Immune responses of organisms help to defend against disease.

Notes from 12/6

Vaccine: A weakened or killed form of a disease causing microbe that is given to a person to trigger an immune response

How vaccines work: The antigens on the outside of the weakened microbe cause the white blood cells to manufacture antibodies that match the antigens so if the person gets exposed to the microbe the antibodies are ready to destroy the pathogen.

Vaccines work against many bacterial and viral caused diseases but not all

Antibiotics do not work against diseases caused by viruses

Vaccines are not a treatment for disease only a prevention

It is better to prevent rather than treat infectious disease because: you won't suffer with the disease, you won't spread the disease, you won't suffer from possible disease complications like DEATH!

Notes from 12/5

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

1.COMPLEX ORGANIZATION

•MADE OF CELLS

•CELLS ORGANIZED INTO TISSUES

•TISSUES ORGANIZED INTO ORGANS

•ORGANS ORGANIZED INTO ORGAN SYSTEMS •UNI CELLULAR ARE STILL ORGANIZED INTO ORGANELLES OR PARTS THAT HAVE SPECIFIC JOBS- NUCLEUS, RIBOSOMES, MITOCHONDRIA…

2.RESPOND TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT (STIMULI)

• HOMEOSTASIS (BODY’S EFFORT TO MAINTAIN BALANCED INTERNAL CONDITIONS INSPITE OF OUTSIDE CONDITIONS). EXAMPLE: SHIVER WHEN COLD • ANIMAL MIGRATON EXAMPLE OF RESPONSE TO WEATHER, FOOD AVAILABITITY, ETC…

3.REPRODUCE

• ABILITY TO PASS ON GENETIC MATERIAL TO OFFSPRING • ENSURES SURVIVAL OF SPECIES • HAVE A LIFE CYCLE: BIRTH, INFANCY, YOUTH, ADULT, OLD AGE, DEATH • MUST GROW AND DEVELOP

4.REQUIRE ENERGY TO PERFORM METABOLISM

(SUM OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS THAT CELLS PERFORM TO MAINTAIN LIFE)

5.ADAPT TO ENVIRONMENT AND EVOLVE

Notes from 11/29

SCIENTISTS TO KNOW:

Hooke: first to use the word "cells" a name he gave to the cork structures viewed with a microscope

Schleiden- all plants made of cells

Schwann-all animals made of cells these three are credited with developing cell theory

Virchow- all cells come from pre-existing cells

Pasteur- discovered that specific microbes cause specific infectious diseases in other words- Germ Theory

Osmosis- the diffusion of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane

Diffusion- the process by which molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

BACTERIA

• They're decomposers
• Prokaryotes (no nucleus)
• Unicellular
• Heterotrophic (can't make) or autotrophic (can make their own food)
• More of them than any other living creature
• Three common different shapes only
• Do both good and harmful stuff
• Found everywhere
• Some move, some don't
• microscopic

PROTISTS

• Uni AND multicellular
• Eukaryotes (has nucleus)
• Three big categories (plant, animal, and fungus-like)
• Found in moist surroundings
• Some move, some don't
• Hetero and autotrophic
• Three major ways the move (pseudopods, flagellum, cilia)
• Plant-like = algae
• Animal-like = protozoan
• microscopic

VIRUS

• Not made of cells
• consist of genetic material with a protein coat
• can only reproduce when they invade a host cell
• can not be seen with conventional microscope, need an electron microscope

Notes from 11/28

Cell Organelle Functions

Organelle: tiny structure in cells, performs a specific function

Cell Wall: ridged layer nonliving material, surrounds cell, protect and support, not in animal cells, skeletal system

Cell Membrane: all cells have, selectively permeable- lets something like O2 and nutrients in, lets out somethings like waste and C02

Nucleus: cells control center, controls all cells activities, like the brain, contains chromatin (DNA), all cells have except bacteria

Nucleus Membrane: surrounds nucleus, protects by selectivity, allowing substances in and out of nucleus

Chromatin: in nucleus, genetic material, controls cells functions (DNA)

Nucleolus: in nucleus, makes ribosomes which make proteins

Cytoplasm: region between cell membrane and nucleus, gel like fluid, constantly moves, all cells have

Mitochondrion: rod shaped, site of cellular respiration, most of energy produced here, "powerhouse" of cell

Endoplasmic Reticulum: passageways, carry proteins and other things through cell, "circulatory system", (no ribosomes- smooth, ribosomes- rough)

Ribosomes: produce proteins (factory)

Golgi Body: "mail room", receives proteins, sorts proteins, packages proteins, send to where they're needed

Chloroplasts: autotrophs have, site where sun's energy is converted to chemical energy, energy -- glucose

Vacuole: stores water food waste and other things, huge in plant cells, small in animals

Lysosome: animal cells, break down food and worn out cells

Notes from 11/21

Selectively Permeable: some substances are allowed to pass through but others are not. Cell membrane is selectively permeable

Diffusion: method by which substances move into and out ot cells. Process where molecules tend to move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. See cells book page 41.

Osmosis: Diffusion of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane. In osmosis water molecules move from an area where they are highly concentrated to an area of lower concentration. See cells book page 42

Notes from 11/4

Compound Microscope: microscope that uses more than one lens

Notes from 11/1

Infectious: something that can be passed person to person. Also referred to as communicable

Disease: Being sick. Your body is not working the way it is suppose to

Causes of disease: Germs (cause infectious diseases). poor diet (remember pellagra), Hereditary diseases you are born with due to your genetics, environment (examples pollution, extreme temperatures)

Notes from 10/17

Coronary bloodvessels: blood vessels that supply the heart with oxygen and nutrients

Heart attack: blood supplying the heart muscle gets blocked resulting in damaged heart muscle

Risk factors for heart disease:

• high sodium and or fat diet
• lack of exercise
• excessive alcohol consumption
• drugs
• smoking
• gender (males have higher incidences)
• race
• heredity -family history of heart disease
• age

Notes from 10/13

Heart notes

Heart:

• acts as a two pump system
• right side pumps to the lungs
• left side pumps to the body
• 4 Chambers: Top champbers called Atria- blood enters heart in atria. Bottom chambers called Ventricles. Blood leaves heart through ventricles

Valves: Flap of tissue that prevents blood flowing backward and helps to maintain pressure

1. Tricuspid valve separates right atrium from right ventricle
2. Pulmonary valve separates right ventricle from pulmonary artery
3. Mitral valve separates left atrium from left ventricle
4. Aortic valve separates left ventricle from Aorta artery

Blood vessels: three kinds

1. Arteries: carry blood out of heart. Usually oxygen rich. Pulmonary artery is exception
2. Veins: carry blood back to heart. Usually oxygen poor. Pulmonary artery is exception
3. Capillaries: smallest blood vessels. Site where substances (oxygen, carbon dioxide, wastes, nutrients) are exchanged with cells

Notes from 10/11

Pulse: measure of how many contractions (beats) your heart does in one minute - beats per minute units

After exercising: pulse rate will increase since your muscles require more nutrients and oxygen to supply the extra energy required. Since your heart contractions push the blood and you need the blood to deliver oxygen and nutrients and also to take away the carbon dioxide and wastes faster your heart must beat faster.

Improved levels of fitness: are associated with a slower resting pulse and a faster recovery time after exercising because a stronger, fit heart delivers greater force with each contraction than a weaker one. Therefore the heart does not have to work as hard as a weaker heart to get the same job done.

Notes from 10/7

Blood flow: As blood circulates it is transporting a number of substances around your body that are exchanged with the organs it visits. We will be concentrating on four primary things: oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and cellular wastes. As the blood visits the:

heart: it receives energy in the form of a push

lungs: it drops off carbon dioxide to be exhaled and picks up oxygen to deliver to other organs. It also gives the lungs nutrients and picks up waste to be delivered to the kidneys to be processed and eliminated as urine.

Stomach: drops off oxygen and nutrients, picks up carbon dioxide and wastes

Small Intestine: drops off oxygen, picks up nutrients, carbon dioxide, and wastes

Kidneys: blood drops off waste, oxygen, and nutrients. Picks up carbon dioxide

Liver: blood drops off nutrients (if there are toxins present the liver will break them down), and oxygen and picks up wastes and carbon dioxide.

Notes from 10/5

Indicator: a chemical that changes color in different solutions

BTB: an indicator of carbon dioxide. BTB is blue normally but turns to yellow in the presence of Carbon Dioxide.

Notes from 10/3

Carbohydrates: major source of energy, used to provide raw materials to make cells, simple carbohydrates are sugars (molecule names always end in -ose) These sugars can be found in fruits, milk, some vegetables. Complex carbohydrates release their energy slower and come from foods like grains, cereals, pasta, bread. Fiber is a complex carbohydrate found in plant food that is necessary for digestive health as it helps in the elimination process.

Fats: used to make cells, protect your internal organs and acts as insulation to keep heat inside your body. Found in meats, dairy, eggs, seafood, and plants like olives, corn, coconuts, whichUs we make oils out of. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature -example butter and are not as good for you as unsaturated fats that tend to be liquids at room temperature- example olive oil.

Proteins: used for tissue growth and repair. Can serve as a source of energy but are NOT as important a source as carbohydrates. Made up of building blocks called amino acids. Meat sources have all the essential amino acids needed for good health, vegetarian sources do not have all the essential amino acids so it is important to combine different vegetarian protein sources in a meal (brown rice and beans for example) to get a complete protein. Proteins are found in: meat, eggs, milk, nuts, grains,beans,.

Vitamins: primarily found in fruits and vegetables so eat your veggies! needed as helper molecules for a variety of chemical reactions that occur in our bodies. Remember a lack of essential vitamins can result in diseases like pellagra and scurvy.

Minerals: needed for a variety of reasons such as building strong teeth and bones, maintaining water balance and making red blood cells. We obtain the minerals we needed primarily from green vegetables, grains, meats, and dairy.

Healthy eating: refer to the choosemyplate.gov web site to see what is recommended as healthy food choices on a daily basis.

food labels: remember food labels are only for processed foods, not whole foods like fruits and vegetables. They tell you the serving size, calories per serving, and the amount of protein, carbohydrates and fats per serving. The recommended three things to look for are: 1. at least three grams of fiber per 100 calories. 2. no trans fats and 3. not having sugar in the first three listed ingredients unless you are looking for a dessert!

Notes from 9/27-28

Digestive processes that occur as you digest food:

Mouth: teeth mechanically tear food into smaller pieces and also mix food with saliva starting chemical digestion

Esophagus: tube surrounded by muscles that involuntarily contract and relax pushing food into the stomach

Stomach: Here food is mechanically mixed with the aid of the stomach muscles bringing the contents of the stomach into contact with the powerful acid, Hydrochloric Acid (HCL). From here the contents move into the small intestine.

Small Intestine: Here the final chemical breakdown occurs with the help of the pancreas and liver. The liver contributes bile to the small intestine to help break down fats, and the pancreas contributes chemicals to the small intestine which help reduce the acidity in the small intestine and also help in the digestion of proteins, fats and starches. At this point almost all the nutrients are absorbed into the blood through the villi that line the small intestine. The remaining material moves into the large intestine.

Large Intestine: here water is absorbed into the bloodstream and helpful bacteria make some vitamins. The remaining waste material is compressed into solid form in the rectum and eliminated from the body through the anus.

Notes from Tuesday 9/27

Mechanical Digestion or Breakdown: the first stage of digestion in which teeth break down food into small pieces. It is continued in the stomach where the food is churned or mixed.

Chemical Digestion or Breakdown: A process that begins in the mouth, where enzymes from the salivary glands are released to help break down food into nutrients. The process continues in the stomach with stomach acids and enzymes and in the small intestine with enzyme help from the pancreas and liver.

Notes from 9/23

Organ System :Excretory. Function: remove liquid waste from the body. Organs: Kidneys, bladder

Organ System: Digestive. Function: Break food down into nutrients for the body to use. Organs: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, gall bladder, pancreas, stomach, small intestine, large intestine

Terms that you should have!

Independent variable: the variable that is being tested in an experiment and the only variable that the experimenter changes on purpose

Dependent variable: the variable that changes because of the independent variable. It is what is measured or observed as a result of the change in the independent variable

Variable: anything that can change in an experiment.

Definition given 9/9

Scientific Method: Systematic approach to solving problems that integrates previous research, generates a hypothesis, gathers data through controlled experiments, analyzes data and draws conclusions.

Definition given 9/7

Data Range: set of values used to generalize to a larger group of people. Example: normal pulse range for people at rest is 60-80 beats/minute or 20 points.

Notes given 8/31

reproducible experiments: The experiment can be done by others using the exact same procedure and give the same results

Problem: what is the smallest distance you can feel two points, .7cm, 1.5cm, or 2 cm?

What is the variable being tested in this problem? toothpick distance apart

What are the variables being kept the same or contolled? -pressure, toothpick length, eyes closed, location tested.

Notes given
Tuesday 8/30

Nervous System:

• includes brain (center of nervous system), spinal cord, and nerves
• responsible for receiving information about what is happening both inside and outside your body
• directs the way your body responds to this information
• included involuntary or automatic nervous system Example body automatically moving food through your digestive system and processing it
• voluntary nervous system you control-example your brain sends signals to your muscles when you decide to run
• touch receptors are nerve endings that detect pressure, heat, light, sound, and smells
• information is sent through electrochemical impulses from touch receptors to spinal cord to brain
• neurons are cells that carry the information in the nervous system. Your brain is made up of neurons
• see someones notebook for a picture of what a neuron looks like if absent today!

Add this term to your glossary:

Homeostasis: process that works to keep an organism's internal environment stable. Example: your body will sweat when it is hot outside (or in your science classroom) so the evaporation will help cool your body down and keep your internal temperature around 98.6 degrees F.

These notes were taken in class 8/29th

FDA: Food and Drug Administration. Responsible for making sure new drugs are safe and effective

Placebo Effect: when people in the placebo or control group get better even without taking the medicine

Informed Consent: A document volunteers for clinical trials must sign that tells them the possible side effects and other risks associated with the medicine. The ingredients in the drug are also given.

GLOSSARY

Trade-off: Something given up when selecting one alternative over another

Placebo: Pill or substance that looks like medicine but doesn't contain the active ingredient that is in the real medicine. Used as a control

Observation: Data collected through the five senses. You see, hear, smell, touch, or taste something.

Inference: A conclusion or guess made based on observations

Hypothesis: An explanation based on observed facts or an idea of how things work.