22/1 Lectures Notes

     

American Foreign Policy (Pages 638–639)

 

A. The words George Washington spoke in his farewell address in 1796 advising America

              to “steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world” guided

              the American policy of isolationism for about 100 years.

 

B. Then expansionism became the American way as America settled the country from

              coast to coast. When the frontier no longer existed, America began to look overseas to

              expand its trade and compete for political influence.

 

C. In the mid-1800s, American merchants traded with China and hoped to expand to

              other parts of the world. Matthew Perry’s mission to Japan opened trade between

              Japan and the United States.

     1. In 1853 President Millard Fillmore sent Commodore Perry on a mission to Japan

                   to ask the Japanese to open up their ports to American ships.

    2. In 1854 when Perry returned, the Japanese signed the Treaty of Kanagawa. It

                  opened two Japanese ports to United States ships.

 

 

 

       Discussion Question: 1

                Why was the United States interested in trading with China and then Japan?

 

                The United States wanted to expand trading relationships overseas. Asia had raw  

                materials such as silk, spices, and tea that the United States did not have. Asia offered  

                a new market where the United States could sell its manufactured products.

 

 

II. An Age of Imperialism (Pages 639–641)

 

A. The age of imperialism was a time during the late 1800s and early 1900s when

              powerful European nations looked to create large empires for their political and

              economic expansion. European nations competed with one another for power and

              influence in Asia and Africa.

 

B. Some Americans wanted the United States to build an empire after the Civil War,

              when interest in political and economic expansion developed. Secretary of State

              William H. Seward pictured an American empire that dominated the Caribbean,

              Central America, and the Pacific.

                      American groups. In fact Alaskan Native Americans represent

                      about 6 percent of the state’s residents. There are 20 Native

                      American languages spoken in Alaska.

 

 

 

C. In 1867 Seward signed a treaty with Russia to buy Alaska, a Russian colony, for $7.2

              million. This purchase, although criticized by many as “Seward’s Folly,” was a major

              step toward making his vision a reality.

    1. Alaska was twice the size of Texas but a barren, icebound region.

    2. When gold was discovered in the 1890s, people rethought their criticisms.

    3. In 1912 Alaska became a United States territory.

 

D. Some Americans felt a sense of mission while being imperialistic. They felt that bringing

              American culture and religion to people who were “uncivilized” would lift them up

              and help them. America especially had a strong interest in Latin America.

 

E. Keeping European influence out of Latin America was one factor that led to the signing

              of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823. As a result, the United States benefited and signed

              treaties with a number of Latin American countries.

 

F. In 1889 James G. Blaine, the secretary of state, invited Latin American countries to

              attend a Pan-American Conference in Washington, D.C. The Pan-American Union

              resulted to share information among member nations.

 

G. The United States built its naval power during this time of expansion and imperialism.

               By the early 1900s, it had the naval power to stand behind its expanded role in foreign

               affairs. When Congress authorized construction of the first steel-hulled warships in

               1883, the navy changed from sails and wood to steam power and steel hulls.

 

 

 

 

Discussion Question: 2

          Why did the United States host the Pan-American Conference in 1889?

 

          It hoped to strengthen its economic and political ties among its Latin American neighbors.

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    22/2: Class Notes

I. Hawaii (Pages 644–646)

 

A. Secretary of State William Seward wanted to build America’s empire in the Pacific.

             The United States acquired the following Pacific regions:

        1. In 1867 the two small Pacific islands of Midway

        2. Hawaii, as a territory, in 1900

        3. American Samoa in 1900

 

B. Interest in the Hawaiian Islands grew. American trade with Hawaii had begun in the

             1790s. Christian missionaries arrived in 1820 and established schools, created a written

             Hawaiian alphabet, and translated the Bible into Hawaiian. American whaling merchants

             settled there, too. Americans and Europeans also brought diseases that devastated the

             population.

 

C. The sugar industry grew, and Hawaii was more and more under American influence.

               In the 1830s, an American firm introduced sugarcane. Missionaries and traders bought

               land and established sugar plantations. Immigrants from Japan, China, and other

               Pacific islands came to work in the fields. America took control of most of the land

               and businesses, and influenced Hawaiian politics.

 

D. Tariffs greatly affected the sugar industry. In 1885 Hawaiian sugar exported to the

              United States was allowed to enter the country without tariffs. As a result, exports

              soared and profits increased. In 1886 in return for renewal of the trade agreement, the

              United States acquired a naval base at Pearl Harbor. In the early 1890s, Congress

              revised the tariff laws and eliminated the exemption for Hawaiian sugar. Hawaiians

              dropped the price to sell their sugar in order to compete with American sugar, but

              their sugar exports to the United States dropped and sugar growers faced ruin.

 

E. Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii wanted Hawaiians to regain economic control of their

              islands, so she took away powers that American sugar planters held. But the

              American sugar planters successfully revolted against her. The queen left under

              protest in 1893. White planters set up a provisional, or temporary, government.

                      and twenty-fourth president of the United States. He was the only

                      president to serve two terms that were not in succession.

                      turn

 

 

F. In 1898 Congress approved the annexation of Hawaii, and in 1900 Hawaii became a

              United States territory after a long, hard battle.

    1. John Stevens, the chief American diplomat in Hawaii, recognized Hawaii’s new

                  government and asked Washington to seek a treaty to add Hawaii to the United

                  States.

    2. Although President Benjamin Harrison signed the treaty, the Senate did not ratify

                  it before he left office in 1893.

    3. His successor, President Grover Cleveland, opposed annexation and withdrew the

                  treaty from the Senate after he learned that most Hawaiians did not support the

                  revolt.

    4. A powerful group of Americans and their Hawaiian allies pushed for annexation,

                  which was approved under President William McKinley.

 

G. The United Stated gained the islands of Samoa located about 3,000 miles south of

               Hawaii. In the 1830s, United States missionaries landed in Samoa. In 1878 Samoa gave

               America special trading rights and land to build a naval station at the port of Pago

               Pago. Great Britain and Germany also wanted trading rights.

    1. In 1899 the United States, Great Britain, and Germany divided up the Samoan

                  islands without consulting the Samoans.

    2. The United States and Germany split Samoa between them. Great Britain withdrew

                  from the area in return for rights on other Pacific islands.

 

 

 

            Discussion Question: 1

                      Why do you think many Hawaiians and Asian immigrants in Hawaii opposed                   

                      annexation?

 

                      Answers will vary, but should include the idea that they did not want to be controlled              

                      by  the United States.

 

                     

 

II. China and the Open Door (Page 647)

 

A. In the late 1890s, European powers controlled sections of China where they had

              special rights and powers.

    1. Japan held the island of Formosa (present-day Taiwan) and parts of the Chinese

                  mainland.

    2. Germany held the Shandong area in east-central China.

    3. Great Britain and France held several provinces.

    4. Russia moved into Manchuria and other areas in northern China.

 

B. The United States did not want to be squeezed out of the China trade, so the secretary

              of state, John Jay, proposed an Open Door Policy. It stated that each foreign nation

              could trade freely in the other nation’s sphere of influence.

 

C. The Boxer Rebellion was a violent uprising against “foreign devils” in China. A secret

              martial-arts society known as the Boxers besieged the capital city of Beijing. The rebellion

              lasted for two months, during which many died and hundreds more were trapped in

              Beijing. In August foreign troops defeated the Boxers and the siege ended.

 

D. Hay proposed a second Open Door Policy to which other foreign powers responded.

              It stressed the importance of maintaining China’s independence and respecting its

              borders. As compensation for the rebellion’s damage, other foreign nations forced

              China to sign new trade treaties.

 

 

 

Discussion Question" 2

Why did foreign nations carve out spheres of influence in China by the late 1890s?

 

They wanted to gain control of China’s resources and its markets. Because China had internal warring   factions, it was less able to resist the influence of the foreign powers.)

 

 

III. Japan (Page 648)

 

A. Japan wanted to expand its power in Asia. It clashed with Russia and the United

              States and ignored the Open Door Policy.

 

B. The Russo-Japanese War occurred in the early 1900s when Japan clashed with Russia

              over Manchuria, which was rich in natural resources.

    1. On February 8, 1904, Japan attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur in southern

                  Manchuria and scored several more victories that destroyed the Russian fleet.

    2. By the spring of 1905, both countries were eager to make peace, so President

                 Theodore Roosevelt arranged for the leaders to meet.

    3. In September 1905, Japan and Russia signed the Treaty of Portsmouth. It recognized

                 Japan’s control of Korea, and Japan pledged to halt its expansion.

 

C. Japan emerged from the war as the strongest naval power in the Pacific. It challenged

              the United States for control.

 

D. Relations between the United States and Japan deteriorated. During the Russo-

              Japanese War, Japanese immigration to the United States, especially California,

              increased. Americans resented the Japanese, and an anti-Asian feeling grew as

              Americans felt the Japanese took away their jobs because they would work for less

              pay.

   1. In 1906 the San Francisco Board of Education ordered that Asian students attend

                 separate schools. The Japanese protested and felt that an 1894 treaty had been

                 violated.

   2. President Roosevelt ordered the San Francisco board to change its policy and

                persuaded Japan to sign the Gentlemen’s Agreement in which Japan promised

                to restrict emigration. Japan resented the agreement.

 

E. In 1907 Roosevelt sent the “Great White Fleet,” 16 battleships on a cruise around the

              world to show off America’s navy. When the fleet returned in 1909, the United States

 

              and Japan had resolved many of their differences.

 

 

Discussion Question: 3

         What caused Japan and the United States to clash in the early 1900s?

 

Japan ignored the Open Door Policy and challenged the United States for control in the Pacific  region. The Japanese resented the treatment they received in the United States as a result of  the San Francisco Board of Education’s order, which the Japanese felt violated a prior treaty  that protected their rights. They also resented the Gentlemen’s Agreement to restrict their  emigration to the United States.

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22/3: Lecture Notes

 

I. The Cuban Rebellion (Pages 649–652)

 

A. José Martí led the Cuban people in a new revolt against Spanish rule in 1895.   

     Martí’s men burned sugarcane fields and destroyed buildings. The Spanish  

     herded Cubans into camps to separate them from the rebels and to break their 

     morale. Thousands died of starvation and disease, and there was major property  

    damage in the revolution.

 

B. Americans were concerned about the Cuban citizens. They called for the  

     government to do something. Business people were worried about their loss of 

     trade and investments in Cuba. The government was worried about a rebellion so

     close to the United States. President Grover Cleveland opposed American 

     involvement. When William McKinley became president in March 1897, he hoped

     the conflict would be settled peacefully.

 

C. The revolution eventually led to the Spanish-American War through a series of 

      events.

      1. Yellow journalism, or sensationalism and false reporting by the newspapers,

                    increased American pro-war sentiment.

      2. In January 1898, President McKinley sent the battleship Maine into Havana’s           

          harbor to protect the lives and property of American citizens in Cuba.

      3. While in Havana, the Maine exploded, killing 266 sailors. American papers and

                    then the government blamed Spain. Spain denied responsibility, and evidence 

                    later indicated that the explosion may have been accidental.

      4. America sent a note to the Spanish demanding a truce and an end to the          

          brutality against Cubans.

 

D. The fighting actually began in the Philippines, a Spanish colony in the Pacific.  

     These islands were a base for the Spanish fleet.

     1. On May 1, 1898, Commodore George Dewey and his naval fleet launched a 

         surprise attack on the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay. Most of the Spanish fleet 

         was destroyed.

     2. American troops and Filipino rebels led by Emilio Aguinaldo captured the city of

                   Manila.

     3. The Filipino rebels seized the main island of Luzon, declared independence, 

         and created a democratic republic. They had struggled for years to become  

         independent from Spain.

 

 

   4. The United States did not know what to do with the islands and gave no  

        immediate support to their independence.

 

E. Fighting in Cuba began when a Spanish fleet entered the harbor of Santiago on  

     May 19. Several days later, American naval forces blockaded the coast and

     trapped the Spanish in the harbor.

 

F. An American land force of about 17,000 arrived and joined forces with the   

    Cubans. Theodore Roosevelt led the First Regiment of the United States Cavalry  

    volunteers known as the Rough Riders. On July 1, the Rough Riders and the 

    African American soldiers of the Ninth and Tenth Cavalries joined the Battle of 

    San Juan Hill. Americans captured San Juan Hill. In another battle two days later, 

    the Spanish fleet tried to break out of Santiago and was completely destroyed.

   This ended Spanish resistance in Cuba.

 

G. On August 12, the Spanish signed an armistice, or peace agreement ending the

     war. Secretary of State John Jay called it “a splendid little war,” but it was not so

     splendid.

     1. The war lasted fewer than four months. About 400 Americans were killed or  

         died from wounds.

     2. Over 5,000 more Americans died from tropical diseases such as yellow fever  

         and malaria.

     3. The 10,000 African Americans who fought in the war still faced discrimination.

 

H. After the war, the United States turned its attention to the Spanish colony of  

     Puerto Rico. American troops landed in late July and took control of the island.

 

 

Question: 1

Why did Secretary of State John Jay refer to the Spanish-American War as “a splendid little war”?

 

Answers will vary, but should include the idea that it was short––fewer than four months––and the United States was victorious. The Americans captured San Juan Hill and blockaded the port of Santiago so the Spanish fleet could not leave. Then in two battles, the Americans destroyed the fleet. Spain realized that they could no longer control Cuba, gave up resistance, and signed an armistice to end the war.

 

 

II. Acquisitions (Pages 652–654)

 

A. Signing the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898, ended the war and most of 

     the Spanish empire was dissolved.

    1. Cuba became a protectorate of the United States, or a country that is 

        independent but controlled by another.

     2. Puerto Rico and Guam in the Pacific became territories of the United States.

     3. Spain surrendered the Philippines to the United States for $20 million.

 

B.  America planned how to handle Cuba as a protectorate. Business leaders did 

      not want to jeopardize their interests or see Cuba weakened politically.  

     Congressional leaders did not think Cuba was ready for complete self-

     government.

     1. American troops remained.

     2. In 1901 the United States gave Cuba full independence but required that a list   

         of terms be included in their constitution known as the Platt Amendment.

         a. Cuba could not make treaties with other nations.

                   b. America controlled a naval base at Guantánamo Bay.

                   c. America had the right to interfere in Cuban affairs if Cuba’s independence 

                      was threatened.

 

C. In 1900 the United States set up a new government in Puerto Rico under the 

     Foraker Act. It controlled the new government. In 1917 the Jones Act made

     Puerto Rico a territory of the United States and granted American citizenship to 

     Puerto Ricans.

 

D. Anti-imperialists and other groups opposed the acquisition of the Philippines.  

    They fought approval of the treaty. The imperialists won, and the Senate ratified 

     the Treaty of Paris on February 6, 1899.

    1. In February 1899, Aguinaldo’s rebel forces in the Philippines revolted against

                  American rule. The Filipinos suffered huge casualties. At least 200,000 soldiers 

                  and civilians died. The conflict was difficult for Americans. In March 1901, when

                  Aguinaldo was captured, the fighting ended.

     2. By the summer of 1901, the United States transferred authority from a military 

         to a civilian government headed by William Howard Taft. The Philippines did 

         not gain full independence until 1946.

 

 

Question: 2

What effect did the Platt Amendment have on Cuba?

 

Cuba could not make treaties with other nations, America could lease a naval base at Guantánamo Bay, and America had the right to intervene in Cuban affairs if Cuba’s independence was threatened. Cuba did not actually have

          full independence, and therefore the Cubans resented the amendment and 

         American interference. The amendment was revoked in 1933.

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22/4: Lectures Class Notes

I. Panama (Pages 656–658)

 

A. The United States had dreamed of building a canal across Panama. The country is

              an isthmus, or a long narrow strip of land connecting two larger bodies of land and

              bordered by water on both sides. A canal would shorten the time and distance that

              ships would travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans, eliminating the long sea

              voyage around South America.

 

B. A French company had acquired a lease from Colombia to construct a canal across

              Panama in 1879. Panama was part of Colombia at the time. French efforts failed.

 

C. In 1901 the United States bought the lease from the French for $40 million. In 1903 the

              United States government proposed a treaty with Colombia that gave the United

              States a 99-year lease on a strip of land across Panama. Colombia rejected the treaty

              because it wanted more money for the land.

 

D. In 1903 a United States warship arrived at the port of Colón, Panama. Encouraged by this

              support, the Panamanians revolted and declared their independence from Colombia.

              Colombia sent forces to stop the revolt, but the United States turned them back.

 

E. The United States recognized the new Republic of Panama on November 6. A treaty

              with Panama gave the United States a 10-mile strip of land across the country and the

              right to build a canal on this land known as the Canal Zone.

 

F. Building the canal was a great engineering feat. Thousands of workers labored for

              10 years to carve a path through dense jungle and over mountains.

    1. They created a huge human-made lake and built locks to raise and lower ships to

                  different water levels.

    2. A major obstacle was disease. The region was a damp, tropical jungle, hot and

                  swarming with mosquitoes that carried yellow fever and malaria. An army doctor,

                  Colonel William Gorgas, went to Panama to fight and eventually eliminate yellow

                  fever and reduce the cases of malaria.

    3. The Panama Canal opened on August 15, 1914. The Ancon, a cargo ship, made the

                  first trip. The canal reduced shipping costs, helped extend American naval power,

                  and guaranteed a strong American presence in Latin America. Many Latin

                  Americans though were bitter over how the Canal Zone was acquired, and

                  their relationship with the United States remained difficult.

 

 

Discussion Question

          Panama is one of the major crossroads of the world because of the Panama Canal. Why

          is this so?

 

          Ships from many nations of the world pass through the Panama Canal. It makes the

          cities of Panama busy. It transports thousands of ships a year making the trip from ocean to

          ocean shorter and faster.

 

II. Policing the Western Hemisphere (Pages 658–660)

 

A. President Theodore Roosevelt believed that the United States should respond to foreign

              crises with military action. Often he said “Speak softly and carry a big stick,” so

              he became known for his “big stick” approach.

 

B. The Caribbean region was unstable. Roosevelt worried that European powers would

               intervene. He developed a policy known as the Roosevelt Corollary. This was added

               to the Monroe Doctrine as a result of economic troubles in Venezuela in 1902 and the

               fall of the government of the Dominican Republic in 1903. The president responded

               as a police officer in Latin America intervening in the affairs of nations when they

               seemed unstable.

 

C. The Roosevelt Corollary was first used in the Dominican Republic in 1905 when the

               United States took control of the country’s finances. It was used again in 1906 when

               the United States sent troops to Cuba to stop the revolt there.

 

D. William Howard Taft, Roosevelt’s successor, modified America’s foreign policy by

               intervening in other nations’ affairs when American business interests were threatened.

              This policy was called dollar diplomacy, linking American business interests to

              diplomatic interests.

 

E. Dollar diplomacy helped American investments in Latin America grow.

    1. The money built roads, railroads, and harbors.

    2. The money stimulated trade and benefited both Latin America and the United

                  States.

   3. Large American companies held great power and controlled the politics of some

                 nations.

   4. Military intervention followed dollar diplomacy if business interests were threatened.

        In 1912 marines were sent to Nicaragua to restore peace when a revolt

                 threatened business interests. This action increased anti-American feelings.

              Discussion Question

              Why did Taft use dollar diplomacy as a foreign policy in Latin America?

 

     He believed that American investments would bring stability to troubled areas of the

     world and also bring profit and power to the United States. He was willing to intervene

     if American business interests were at risk.

I

II. Relations with Mexico (Pages 660–661)

 

A. Mexico had a series of civil wars in the early 1900s that threatened American investments

              and led to American military intervention.

    1. In 1911 Francisco Madero led a revolt to overthrow Porifirio Díaz, a brutal dictator.

    2. Madero was overthrown and killed by General Victoriano Huerta two years later.

                  He favored the wealthy and foreign interests like Díaz.

    3. Civil war broke out after Huerta took power. Woodrow Wilson did not recognize

                  the Huerta regime.

 

B. Wilson followed a foreign policy based on moral principles. He believed that the

              United States had a duty to “teach the South American republics to elect good men.”

              He believed in the ideals of democracy. His policy faced a major challenge under

              Huerta. Wilson authorized arm sales to Venustiana Carranza, Huerta’s rival.

 

C. Carranza took power after Huerta was forced to flee. In April 1914, Huerta’s troops

               arrested some American sailors, and Wilson ordered United States troops to take the

               port of Veracruz. This strengthened Carranza’s position, and he was able to take

               power and overthrow Huerta. American troops then withdrew.

 

D. In another uprising by Francisco “Pancho” Villa in January 1916 against Carranza,

              16 Americans were shot because of American support of Carranza. Villa and his rebels

              then crossed into New Mexico, burned the town of Columbus, and killed 18 Americans

              there.

    1. President Wilson sent General John J. Pershing and a large force into Mexico to

                  capture Pancho Villa.

    2. The Mexicans protected Villa, so Pershing never captured him, although the troops

                  pursued Villa across Mexico for almost a year.

    3. In 1917 Americans withdrew from Mexico with war raging in Europe.

 

Discussion Question

          Why did American actions in Mexico cause resentment?

 

          The Mexicans saw Americans intervening in their civil wars as a way for the United States

          to influence their policies, and Mexico did not like it. In fact, American intervention almost

          caused a war.

 

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