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small medium large ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY I & II INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES Chapter 1 - Levels of Body Organization 1. Define anatomy and physiology and name several sub-disciplines of these sciences. 2. Describe the levels of structural organization that make up the human body. 3. List the eleven systems of the human body, the organs present in each, and their general functions. 4. Define the important life processes of the human body. 5. Define homeostasis and explain its relationship to interstitial fluid. 6. Describe the components of a feedback system. 7. Contrast the operation of negative and positive feedback systems. 8. Explain why homeostatic imbalances cause disorders. 9. Describe some of the effects of aging. 10. Describe the orientation of the body in the anatomical position. 11. Relate the common names to the corresponding anatomical descriptive terms for various regions of the human body. 12. Define the anatomical planes and sections used to describe the human body. 13. Describe the major body cavities, the organs they contain, and their associated linings. 14. Define each directional term used to describe the human body. 15. Describe the principles and importance of medical imaging procedures in the evaluation of organ functions and the diagnosis of disease. Chapter 2 - The Chemical Level of Organization 16. Identify the main chemical elements of the human body. 17. Describe the structures of atoms, ions, molecules, free radicals, and compounds. 18. Describe how valence electrons form chemical bonds. 19. Distinguish among ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds. 20. Define a chemical reactions. 21. Describe the various forms of energy. 22. Compare exergonic and endergonic chemical reactions. 23. Describe the role of activation energy and catalysts in chemical reactions. 24. Describe synthesis, decomposition, exchange, and reversible reactions. 25. Describe the properties of water and inorganic acids, bases, and salts. 26. Distinguish among solutions, colloids, and suspensions. 27. Define pH and explain the role of buffer systems in homeostasis. 28. Describe the functional groups of organic molecules. 29. Identify the building blocks and functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, enzymes, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Chapter 3 - The Cellular Level of Organization 30. Name and describe the three main parts of a cell. 31. Describe the structure and functions of the plasma membrane. 32. Describe the processes that transport substances across the plasma membrane. 33. Describe the structure and function of cytoplasm, cytosol, and organelles. 34. Describe the structure and function of the nucleus. 35. Describe the sequence of events that take place during protein synthesis. 36. Discuss the stages, events, and significance of somatic cell division. 37. Describe the signals that induce cell division. 38. Describe the cellular changes that occur with aging. Chapter 4 - The Tissue Level of Organization 39. Describe the structure and functions of the five main types of cell junctions. 40. Describe the general features of epithelial tissues. 41. For each different type of epithelium, list its location, structure, and function. 42. Describe the basic features of connective tissue. 43. Describe the structure, location, and functions of the various types of connective tissues. 44. Define a membrane. 45. Describe the classification of membranes. 46. Describe the general features of muscle tissue. 47. Contrast the structure, location and mode of control of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle tissue. 48. Describe the structural features and functions of nervous tissue. 49. Describe the role of tissue repair in restoring homeostasis. 50. Describe the effects of aging on tissues. Chapter 5 - The Integumentary System 51. Describe the layers of the epidermis and the cells that compose them. 52. Compare the composition of the papillary and reticular regions of the dermis. 53. Explain the basis for different skin colors. 54. Contrast the structure, distribution and functions of hair, skin glands, and nails. 55. Describe how the skin contributes to regulation of body temperature, protection, sensation, excretion and absorption, and synthesis of vitamin D. 56. Explain how epidermal wounds and deep wounds heal. 57. Describe the development of the epidermis, its accessory structures, and the dermis. 58. Describe the effects of aging on the integumentary system. Chapter 6 - The Skeletal System: Bone Tissue 59. Describe the parts of a long bone. 60. Describe the histological features of bone tissue. 61. Describe the blood and nerve supply of bone. 62. Describe the steps of intramembranous and endochondral ossification. 63. Describe how bone grows in length and thickness. 64. Explain the role of nutrients and hormones in regulating bone growth. 65. Describe the processes involved in bone remodeling. 66. Describe the sequence of events in repair of a fracture. 67. Describe the role of bone in calcium homeostasis. 68. Describe how exercise and mechanical stress affect bone tissue. 69. Describe the development of the skeletal system and the limbs. 70. Describe the effects of aging on bone tissue. Chapter 7 - The Skeletal System: The Axial Skeleton. 71. Describe how the skeleton is divided into axial and appendicular divisions. 72. Classify bones bases on their shape and location. 73. Describe the principal surface markings on bones and the functions of each. 74. Name the cranial and facial bones and indicate the number of each. 75. Describe the following special features of the skull: sutures, paranasal sinuses, and fontanels. 76. Describe the relationship of the hyoid bone to the skull. 77. Identify the regions and normal curves of the vertebral column and describe its structural and functional features. 78. Identify the bones of the thorax. Chapter 8 - The Skeletal System: The Appendicular Skeleton 79. Identify the bones of the pectoral (shoulder) girdle and their principal markings. 80. Identify the bones of the upper limb and their principal markings. 81. Identify the bones of the pelvic girdle and their principal markings. 82. Compare the principal structural differences between female and male pelves. 83. Describe the differences in the pectoral and pelvic girdles. 84. Identify the bones of the lower limb and their principal markings. Chapter 9 - Joints 85. Describe the structural and functional classification of joints. 86. Describe the structure and functions of the three types of fibrous joints. 87. Describe the structure and functions of the two types of cartilaginous joints. 88. Describe the structure of synovial joints. 89. Describe the six sub-types of synovial joints. 90. Describe the structure and function of bursae and tendon sheaths. 91. Describe the types of movements that can occur at synovial joints. 92. Describe the anatomical components of the shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee. 93. Explain the movements that can occur at the shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee. 94. Describe five factors that influence the type of movement and range of motion possible at a synovial joint. 95. Explain the effects of aging on joints. Chapter 10 - Muscle Tissue 96. Correlate the three types of muscle tissue with their functions and special properties. 97. Explain the relation of connective tissue components, blood vessels, and nerves to skeletal muscles. 98. Describe the microscopic anatomy of a skeletal muscle fiber. 99. Outline the steps involved in the sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction. 100. Describe how muscle action potentials arise at the neuromuscular junction. 101. Describe the reactions by which muscle fibers produce ATP. 102. Describe the structure and function of a motor unit. 103. Explain the phases of a twitch contraction. 104. Describe how frequency of stimulation affects muscle tension. 105. Compare the structure and function of the three types of skeletal muscle fibers. 106. Describe the effects of exercise on different types of skeletal muscle fibers. 107. Describe the main structural and functional characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue. 108. Describe the main structural and functional characteristics of smooth muscle tissue. 109. Explain how muscle fibers regenerate. 110. Describe the development of muscles. 111. Explain how aging affects skeletal muscle. Chapter 11 - The Muscular System 112. Describe the relationship between bones and skeletal muscles in producing body movements. 113. Define lever and fulcrum, and compare the three types of levers based on location of the fulcrum, effort, and load. 114. Identify the types of fascicle arrangements in a skeletal muscle, and relate the arrangements to strength of contraction and range of motion. 115. Explain how the prime mover, antagonist, synergist, and fixator in a muscle group work together to produce movement. 116. Explain seven features used in naming skeletal muscles. 117. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles of facial expression. 118. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the extrinsic eye muscles. 119. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles that move the mandible. 120. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the extrinsic muscles of the tongue. 121. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles of the anterior neck. 122. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles that move the head. 123. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles that act on the abdominal wall. 124. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles used in breathing. 125. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles of the pelvic floor. 126. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles of the perineum. 127. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles that move the pectoral girdle. 128. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles that move the humerus. 129. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles that move the radius and ulna. 130. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles that move the wrist, hand, thumb, and fingers. 131. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the intrinsic muscles of the hand. 132. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles that move the vertebral column. 133. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles that move the femur. 134. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles that act on the femur, tibia, and fibula. 135. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the muscles that move the foot and toes. 136. Describe the origin, insertion, action, and innervation of the intrinsic muscles of the foot. Chapter 12 - Nervous Tissue 137. List the structures and basic functions of the nervous system. 138. Describe the organization of the nervous system. 139. Contrast the histological characteristics and the functions of neurons and neuroglia. 140. Describe the cellular properties that permit communication among neurons and effectors. 141. Compare the basic types of ion channels, and explain how they relate to action potentials and graded potentials. 142. Describe the factors that maintain a resting membrane potential. 143. List the sequence of events that generate an action potential. 144. Explain the events of signal transmission at a chemical synapse. 145. Distinguish between spatial and temporal summation. 146. Give examples of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, and describe how they act. 147. Describe the classes and functions of neurotransmitters. 148. Identify the various types of neuronal circuits in the nervous system. 149. Define plasticity and neurogenesis. Chapter 13 - The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves 150. Describe the protective structures and the gross anatomical features of the spinal cord. 151. Describe the functions of the major sensory and motor tracts of the spinal cord. 152. Describe the functioning components of a reflex arc and the ways reflexes maintain homeostasis. 153. Describe the components, connective tissue coverings, and branching of a spinal nerve. 154. Define plexus, and identify the distribution of nerves of the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses. 155. Describe the clinical significance of dermatomes. 156. Describe the origin and distribution of the cervical plexus. 157. Describe the origin and distribution of the brachial plexus. 158. Describe the origin and distribution of the lumbar plexus. 159. Describe the origin and distribution of the sacral plexus. Chapter 14 - The Brain and Cranial Nerves 160. Identify the major parts of the brain. 161. Describe how the brain is protected. 162. Explain the formation and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid. 163. Describe the structures and functions of the brain stem. 164. Describe the structure and functions of the cerebellum. 165. Describe the components and functions of the diencephalon. 166. Describe the cortex, convolutions, fissures, and sulci of the cerebrum. 167. List and locate the lobes of the cerebrum. 168. Describe the nuclei that comprise the basal ganglia. 169. List the structures and describe the functions of the limbic system. 170. Describe the locations and functions of the sensory, association, and motor areas of the cerebral cortex. 171. Identify the cranial nerves by name and number, and give the functions of each. 172. Describe the effects of aging on the nervous system. Chapter 15 - Sensory, Motor, and Integrative Systems 173. Define sensation, and discuss the components of sensation. 174. Describe the different ways to classify sensory receptors. 175. Describe the location and function of the receptors for tactile, thermal, and pain sensations. 176. Identify the receptors for proprioception and describe their functions. 177. Describe the location and functions of the primary somatosensory areas and primary motor areas in the cerebral cortex. 178. Describe the neuronal components and functions of the posterior column-medial lemniscus, the anterolateral, and the spinocerebellar pathways. 179. Identify the locations and functions of lower motor neurons. 180. Describe the four neuronal circuits that provide input to lower motor neurons. 181. Compare the locations and functions of the direct and indirect motor pathways. 182. Explain how the basal ganglia and cerebellum modulate movements. 183. Compare the integrative cerebral functions of wakefulness and sleep, and learning and memory. Chapter 16 - The Special Senses 184. Describe the olfactory receptors and the neural pathway for olfaction. 185. Describe the gustatory receptors and the neural pathway for gustation. 186. List and describe the accessory structures of the eye and the structural components of the eyeball. 187. Discuss image formation by describing refraction, accommodation, and constriction of the pupil. 188. Describe the processing of visual signals in the retina and the neural pathway for vision. 189. Describe the anatomy of the structures in the three main regions of the ear. 190. List the major events in the physiology of hearing. 191. Identify the receptor organs for equilibrium, and describe how they function. 192. Describe the development of the eyes and the ears. Chapter 17 - The Autonomic Nervous System 193. Compare the structural and functional differences between the somatic and autonomic parts of the nervous system. 194. Describe preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the autonomic nervous system. 195. Compare the anatomical components of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. 196. Describe the neurotransmitters and receptors involved in autonomic responses. 197. Describe the major responses of the body to stimulation by the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. 198. Describe the components of an autonomic reflex. 199. Explain the relationship of the hypothalamus to the autonomic nervous system. Chapter 18 - The Endocrine System 200. Compare the control of body functions by the nervous system and endocrine system. 201. Distinguish between exocrine and endocrine glands. 202. Describe how hormones react with target cell receptors. 203. Compare the two chemical classes of hormones based on their solubility. 204. Describe the two general mechanisms of hormone action. 205. Describe the three types of signals that can control hormone secretion. 206. Describe the locations of and relationships between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. 207. Describe the location, histology, hormones, and functions of the thyroid gland. 208. Describe the location, histology, hormone, and functions of the parathyroid gland. 209. Describe the location, histology, hormones, and functions of the adrenal glands. 210. Describe the location, histology, hormones, and functions of the pancreatic islets. 211. Describe the location, histology, hormones, and functions of the male and female gonads. 212. Describe the location, histology, hormone, and functions of the pineal gland. 213. List the hormones and growth factors secreted by cells in tissues and organs other than endocrine glands, and describe their functions. 214. Describe how the body responds to stress. 215. Describe the development of the endocrine glands. 216. Describe the effects of aging on the endocrine system. Chapter 19 - The Cardiovascular System: The Blood 217. Describe the functions of blood. 218. Describe the physical characteristics and principal components of blood. 219. Explain the origin of blood cells. 220. Describe the structure, functions, life cycle, and production of red blood cells. 221. Describe the structure, functions, life cycle, and production of white blood cells. 222. Describe the structure, function, and origin of platelets. 223. Describe the three mechanisms that contribute to homeostasis. 224. Identify the stages of blood clotting and explain the various factors that promote and inhibit blood clotting. 225. Explain the ABO and Rh blood groups. Chapter 20, The Cardiovascular System: The Heart 226. Describe the location of the heart, and trace its outline on the surface of the chest. 227. Describe the structure and function of the valves of the heart. 228. Describe the flow of blood through the chambers of the heart and through the systemic and pulmonary circulations. 229. Discuss the coronary circulation. 230. Describe the structural and functional characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue and the conduction system of the heart. 231. Describe how an action potential occurs in cardiac contractile fibers. 232. Describe the electrical events of a normal electrocardiogram (ECG). 233. Describe the pressure and volume changes that occur during a cardiac cycle. 234. Relate the timing of heart sounds to the ECG waves and pressure changes during systole and diastole. 235. Define cardiac output, and describe the factors that affect it. 236. Explain the relationship between exercise and the heart. 237. Describe the development of the heart. Chapter 21 - The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Hemodynamics 238. Contrast the structure and function or arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins. 239. Discuss the pressures that cause movement of fluids between capillaries and interstitial spaces. 240. Explain the factors that regulate the volume of blood flow. 241. Explain how blood pressure changes throughout the cardiovascular system. 242. Describe the factors that determine mean arterial blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance. 243. Describe the relation between cross-sectional area and velocity of blood flow. 244. Describe how blood pressure is regulated. 245. Define pulse, and define systolic, diastolic, and pulse pressures. 246. Define shock, and describe the four types of shock. 247. Describe and compare the major routes that blood takes through various regions of the body. 248. Identify the four principal divisions of the aorta. 249. Identify the two primary arterial branches of the ascending aorta. 250. Identify the three principal arteries that branch from the arch of the aorta. 251. Identify the visceral and parietal branches of the thoracic aorta. 252. Identify the visceral and parietal branches of the abdominal aorta. 253. Identify the two major branches of the common iliac arteries. 254. Identify the three systemic veins that return deoxygenated blood to the heart. 255. Identify the three major veins that drain blood from the head. 256. Identify the principal veins that drain the upper limbs. 257. Identify the components of the azygos system of veins. 258. Identify the principal veins that drain the abdomen and pelvis. 259. Identify the principal superficial and deep veins that drain the lower limbs. 260. Describe the development of blood vessels and blood. 261. Explain the effects of aging on the cardiovascular system. Chapter 22 - The Lymphatic and Immune System and Resistance to Disease 262. Describe the components and major functions of the lymphatic and immune system. 263. Describe the organization of lymphatic vessels. 264. Describe the formation and flow of lymph. 265. Compare the structure and functions of the primary and secondary lymphatic organs and tissues. 266. Describe the development of lymphatic tissues. 267. Describe the mechanisms of nonspecific resistance to disease. 268. Define immunity, and describe how T cells and B cells arise. 269. Explain the relationship between an antigen and an antibody. 270. Compare the functions of cell-mediated immunity and antibody-mediated immunity. 271. Describe the steps of a cell-mediated immune response. 272. Describe the steps in an antibody-mediated immune response. 273. Describe the chemical characteristics and actions of antibodies. 274. Describe how self-recognition and self-tolerance develop. 275. Describe the effects of stress on immunity. 276. Describe the effects of aging on the immune system. Chapter 23 - The Respiratory System 277. Describe the anatomy and histology of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. 278. Identify the functions of each respiratory system structure. 279. Describe the events that cause inhalation and exhalation. 280. Describe the various lung volumes and capacities. 281. Explain Dalton's law and Henry's law. 282. Describe the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in external and internal respiration. 283. Describe how the blood transports oxygen and carbon dioxide. 284. Explain how the nervous system controls breathing and list the factors that can alter the rate and depth of breathing. 285. Describe the effects of exercise on the respiratory system. 286. Describe the development of the respiratory system. 287. Describe the effects of aging on the respiratory system. Chapter 24 - The Digestive System 288. Identify the organs of the digestive system. 289. Describe the basic processes performed by the digestive system. 290. Describe the layers that form the wall of the gastrointestinal tract. 291. Describe the peritoneum and its folds. 292. Identify the locations of the salivary glands, and describe the functions of their secretions. 293. Describe the structure and functions of the tongue. 294. Identify the parts of a typical tooth, and compare deciduous and permanent dentitions. 295. Describe the location and function of the pharynx. 296. Describe the location, anatomy, histology, and functions of the esophagus. 297. Describe the location, anatomy, histology, and functions of the stomach. 298. Describe the location, anatomy, histology, and functions of the pancreas. 299. Describe the location, anatomy, histology, and functions of the liver and gall bladder. 300. Describe the site of secretion and the actions of gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin. 301. Describe the location, anatomy, histology, and functions of the small intestine. 302. Describe the location, anatomy, histology, and functions of the large intestine. 303. Describe the development of the digestive system. 304. Describe the effect of aging on the digesting system. Chapter 25 - Metabolism 305. Explain the role of ATP in anabolism and catabolism. 306. Describe oxidation-reduction reactions. 307. Explain the role of ATP in metabolism. 308. Describe the fate, metabolism, and functions of carbohydrates. 309. Describe the lipoproteins that transport lipids in the blood. 310. Describe the fate, metabolism, and functions of lipids. 311. Describe the fate, metabolism, and functions of proteins. 312. Identify the key molecules in metabolism, and describe the reactions and the products they may form. 313. Compare metabolism during the absorptive and postabsorptive states. 314. Define basal metabolic rate (BMR), and explain several factors that affect it. 315. Describe the factors that affect body heat production. 316. Explain how normal body temperature is maintained by negative feedback loops involving the hypothalamic thermostat. 317. Describe how to select foods to maintain a healthy diet. 318. Compare the sources, functions, and importance of minerals and vitamins in metabolism. Chapter 26 - The Urinary System 319. List the functions of the kidneys. 320. Describe the external and internal gross anatomical features of the kidneys. 321. Trace the path of blood flow through the kidneys. 322. Describe the structure of renal corpuscles and renal tubules. 323. Identify the three basic functions performed by nephrons and collecting ducts, and indicate where each occurs. 324. Describe the filtration membrane. 325. Describe the pressures that promote and oppose glomerular filtration. 326. Describe the routes and mechanisms of tubular reabsorption and secretion. 327. Describe how specific segments of the renal tubule and collecting duct reabsorb water and solutes. 328. Describe how specific segments of the renal tubule and collecting duct secrete solutes into the urine. 329. Describe how the renal tubule and collecting ducts produce dilute and concentrated urine. 330. Describe urinalysis and describe its importance. 331. Define renal plasma clearance and describe its importance. 332. Describe the anatomy, histology, and physiology of the ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. 333. Describe the ways that body wastes are handled. 334. Describe the development of the urinary system. 335. Describe the effects of aging on the urinary system. Chapter 27 - Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis 336. Compare the locations of intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF), and describe the various fluid compartments of the body. 337. Describe the sources of water and solute gain and loss, and explain how each is regulated. 338. Compare the electrolyte composition of the three major fluid compartments: plasma, interstitial fluid, and intracellular fluid. 339. Discuss the functions of sodium, chloride, potassium, bicarbonate, calcium, phosphate, and magnesium ions, and explain how their concentrations are regulated. 340. Compare the roles of buffers, exhalation of carbon dioxide, and kidney excretion of H+ in maintaining pH of body fluids. 341. Define acid-base imbalances, describe their effects on the body, and explain how they are treated. 342. Describe the changes in fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance that may occur with aging. Chapter 28 - The Reproductive Systems 343. Describe the process of meiosis. 344. Describe the location, structure, and functions of the organs of the male reproductive system. 345. Describe the process of spermatogenesis in the testes. 346. Describe the location, structure, and functions of the organs of the female reproductive system. 347. Discuss the process of oogenesis in the ovaries. 348. Compare the major events of the ovarian and uterine cycles. 349. Describe the similarities and differences in the sexual responses of males and females. 350. Compare the various kinds of birth control methods and their effectiveness. 351. Describe the development of the male and female reproductive systems. 352. Describe the effects of aging on the reproductive systems. Chapter 29 - Development and Inheritance 353. Describe the major developmental events that occur during the embryonic period. 354. Describe the fetal period and outline the major events of the fetal period. 355. Describe the sources and functions of the hormones secreted during pregnancy. 356. Describe the hormonal, anatomical, and physiological changes in the mother during pregnancy. 357. Explain the effects of pregnancy on exercise and of exercise on pregnancy. 358. Explain the events associated with the three stages of labor. 359. Explain the respiratory and cardiovascular adjustments that occur in an infant at birth. 360. Discuss the physiology and hormonal control of lactation.
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