The degree of depth or complexity of knowledge standards and assessments
require; this criterion is met if the assessment is as demanding cognitively
as the expectations standards are set for students. (See note below: *** )
There are four levels of Depth of Knowledge in Webb's model:
DOK 1: (recall) Recall and Reproduction- Recall or recognition of a fact,
information (definitions, terms, dates, etc.), concept, or procedure ( some
keywords distinguishing a DOK 1 item might
include: "identify," "recognize," "recall," or "define," and requires only
one step to complete).
Webb's DOK 1 Aspects (Adapted from Karin Hess, Center for Assessment/NCIEA by
the Kentucky Department of Education, 2005):
Identify who, when, what where, and why
Recall facts, terms, concepts, trends, generalizations and theories
Use a variety of tools
Recognize or identify specific information contained in graphics.
Identify specific information in artworks
Define
Describe (recall, recite or reproduce information)
Identify purposes
Some possible representational examples (Working Draft, P. Shepherd & J.
Harmon):
Define arts elements.
Identify arts elements in examples.
Identify purposes for creating arts, styles in the arts, or genre.
Identify artworks from specified cultures or historical periods.
DOK 2: (skill/concept) Basic application of Skills and Concepts - Use of
information, conceptual knowledge, following or selecting appropriate
procedures, two or more steps with decision points along the way, routine
problems, organizing/displaying data (some keywords distinguishing a DOK 2
item might
include: "classify," "organize," "explain," "describe," "interpret," "estim
ate," "collect data," and "compare data"'T,',.¡,',,¡,,that requires mental
skills, concepts, or processing beyond a habitual response; students must
make some decisions about how to approach a problem or activity).
Webb's DOK 2 Aspects (Adapted from Karin Hess, Center for Assessment/NCIEA
by the Kentucky Department of Education, 2005):
Describe or explain how or why
Give an example
Describe and explain issues and problems, purposes, patterns, sources,
reasons, points of view or processes
Compare artworks and concepts used in artworks
Classify, sort items into meaningful categories
Convert information from one form to another
Some possible representational examples (Working Draft, P. Shepherd & J.
Harmon):
Select and describe arts elements in detail from a given example.
Describe or explain how given artworks reflect society.
Provide a basic interpretation of given arts examples.
Explain the purpose of a given artwork.
Classify artworks by genre, style, historical period
DOK 3: (strategic thinking) Strategic Thinking - Requires reasoning,
developing a plan or sequence of steps to approach a problem; requires some
decision making and justification; abstract and complex; often having more
than one possible answer (generally taking less than 10 minutes to do).
Webb's DOK 3 Aspects (Adapted from Karin Hess, Center for Assessment/NCIEA
by the Kentucky Department of Education, 2005):
Use concepts to solve problems
Use evidence to justify
Propose and evaluate solutions to problems
Recognize and explain misconceptions
Cite evidence and develop a logical argument for concepts
Reason and draw conclusions
Disseminate among plausible answers
Analyze similarities and differences in issues and problems
Apply concepts to new situations
Make connections across time and place to explain a concept or big idea
Recognize and explain patterns
Make and support decisions
Evaluate effectiveness and impact
Some possible representational examples (Working Draft, P. Shepherd & J.
Harmon):
Critique given artworks and justify interpretations or conclusions with
evidence.
Explain the use of elements in artworks and support interpretations, citing
evidence involving the artist's manipulation of elements, and how this
contributes to the meaning and /or purpose of the artworks.
Analyze the effect of society and historical style periods on the creation
of arts or analyze the impact of arts on society, justifying conclusions
with evidence.
Analyze similarities and differences in artworks, support analysis with
details (evidence) from the artworks or arts processes.
Expressively create or perform artworks for an audience using provided
procedures or directions.
Plan new or revise various arts products.
DOK 4: (extended thinking) Extended Thinking - An investigation or
application to real work; requires time to research, think, and process
multiple conditions of the problem or task non-routine manipulations, across
disciplines/content areas/multiple sources (requires complex reasoning,
planning, developing, and thinking, most likely over an extended time, and
requiring more than 10 minutes to do non-routine manipulations).
Webb's DOK 4 Aspects (Adapted from Karin Hess, Center for Assessment/NCIEA
by the Kentucky Department of Education, 2005):
Connect and relate ideas and concepts within the content area or among
content areas
Examine and explain alternative perspectives across a variety of sources
Describe and illustrate how common themes and concepts are found across time
and place
Make predictions with evidence as support
Develop a logical argument
Plan and develop solutions to problems
Analyze and synthesize information from multiple sources
Complex reasoning with planning, investigating or developing a product that
will most likely require an extended period of time-must require applying
significant conceptual understanding and higher-order thinking
Apply and adapt information to real-world situations
Participation in simulations and activities requiring higher-level thinking
(e.g., concerts, exhibits, productions)
Some possible representational examples (Working Draft, P. Shepherd & J.
Harmon):
Compare multiple artworks by the same artist, artworks from similar time
periods, compare two or more art forms from the same time period, investigate
the impact of time, place, and personality on the arts if the investigation
results in conclusions that are supported by evidence gathered from a variety
of sources and/or contents over an extended time.
Choose or create expressive artworks to present to an audience after
analysis, planning /designing, and selecting the appropriate
media/tools/procedures to communicate a desired meaning.
Active voice Indicates the subject is acting rather than being acted upon.
Active voice indicates that the subject is acting—doing something. (Benjamin
Franklin discovered the secrets of electricity.) See Passive voice
Adjective A word that describes somebody or something (e.g. old, white, busy,
careful, horrible). Adjectives either come before a noun or after linking
verbs (e.g. be, seem, look). See Adverb, Noun, Verb
Adverb A word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An
adverb tells how, when, where, why, how often, or how much. Adverbs can be
cataloged in four basic ways: time, place, manner, and degree. See Adjective,
Noun, Verb
Aesthetics Having to do with non-tangible attributes such as artistic appeal,
cultural value, or beauty.
Affix A syllable added to either the beginning or end of a base word to
modify its meaning.
Alliteration The repetition of initial consonant sounds in words (e.g. rough
and ready).
Allusion A reference in literature or in visual or performing arts, to a
familiar person, place, thing, or event. Allusions to Biblical figures and
figures from classical mythology are common in Western literature.
APA American Psychological Association, which publishes a guide to research
writing that includes standardized methods of citing references.
Analogy A means of conveying meaning by showing the correspondence or partial
similarity between varying concepts or ideas.
Analytical traits A model for comparing content in writing to writing
structure by categorizing writing traits into expressive skills including
purpose/voice, idea development, and organization, and into technical skills
including sentence fluency, word choice, and conventions.
Anecdote A short account of an entertaining or interesting incident.
Antagonist The character in a story that portrays the adversary, enemy,
contender, or competitor to the protagonist.
Argumentation A speech or writing intended to convince by establishing truth.
Most argumentation begins with a statement of an idea or opinion, which is
then supported with logical evidence. Another technique of argumentation is
the anticipation and rebuttal of opposing views. See Persuasion, Persuasive
writing
Authority An individual with recognized knowledge and expertise in a
particular field or on a specific subject.
Autobiography A written account of a person’s life authored by himself or
herself.
Ballad A poem in verse form that tells a story. See Poetry, Refrain
Biography A written account of a person’s life authored by another person.
Business-technical writing Formats, wording, and content unique to the
workplace that typically use the specific language of a particular
occupation.
Character A person who takes part in the action of a story, novel, or a play.
Sometimes characters are animals or imaginary creatures, such as beings from
another planet.
Characterization/Character development The method a writer uses to develop
characters. There are four basic methods of revealing character: (a) through
a character’s physical appearance; (b) through his/her own speech, thoughts,
feelings, or actions; (c) through the speech, thoughts, feelings, or actions
of other characters; and (d) through direct comments by the narrator about
the character.
Clarification An explanation that makes more transparent, lucid, or definite
the meaning of an idea, concept, or information.
Clause A group of related words that has both a subject and a predicate (e.g.
because the boy laughed). See Phrase
Climax The high point , or turning point, in a story—usually the most intense
point near the end of a story. See Plot, Conflict, Rising action, Resolution
Cohesiveness The degree to which ideas are said to “hang together”, or the
degree to which elements of the story are consistent, logical, and
reasonable, given the whole of the story.
Compose The act of constructing or creating an original piece of writing.
Comprehension strategies Cognitive skills used to derive meaning from text.
See Prior knowledge/Schema, Visualizing, Questioning, Determining importance,
Inferring, and Synthesizing
Conflict In narration, the struggle between the opposing forces that moves
the plot forward. Conflict can be internal (occurring within a character), or
external (occurring between characters, or between a character and an
abstraction such as nature or fate). See Plot, Climax, Rising action,
Resolution
Connotation The attitudes and feelings associated with a word. These
associations can be negative or positive, and have an important influence on
style and meaning. See Denotation
Consonance The repetition of consonant sounds within and at the ends of words
(e.g. lonely afternoon). Often used with assonance, alliteration, and rhyme
to create a musical quality, to emphasize certain words, or to unify a poem.
See Assonance, Alliteration, Rhyme
Content/ideas Information, concepts, beliefs, or opinions expressed in
writing or speaking.
Context The surrounding words or circumstances that clarify the meaning of a
communication or story.
Conventions The widely accepted practices in English punctuation, grammar,
usage, and spelling that are taught in schools and employed by educated
speakers and writers.
Denotation The literal or dictionary definition of a word. See Connotation
Description The process by which a writer uses words to create a picture of a
scene, an event, or a character. A description contains carefully chosen
details that appeal to the reader’s senses of sight, sound, smell, touch, or
taste. See Narration, Exposition, Persuasion
Determining importance The reader differentiates between less important and
key ideas that are central to the meaning.
Dialect A particular variety of language spoken in one place by a distinct
group of people. A dialect reflects the colloquialisms, grammatical
constructions, distinctive vocabulary, and pronunciations that are typical of
a region. At times writers use dialect to establish or emphasize settings as
well as to develop characters.
Dialogue Conversation between two or more people that advances the action, is
consistent with the character of the speakers, and serves to give relief from
passages essentially descriptive or expository. See Description, Exposition,
Drama
Diction An author’s choice of words based on their correctness, clarity, or
effectiveness. See Style, Imagery
Digraph Two successive letters that make a single sound (e.g. the ea in
bread, or the ng in sing).
Diphthong Speech sound beginning with one vowel sound and moving to another
vowel sound within the same syllable (e.g. oy in the word boy).
Discipline A field of study or content area (e.g. social studies or science).
Drama/Dramatic literature A form of literature that is intended to be
performed before an audience. Drama for stage is also called theatre. In a
drama, the story is presented through the dialogue and the actions of the
characters. See Script
Edit To replace or delete words, phrases, and sentences that sound awkward
or confusing, and correct errors in spelling, usage, mechanics, and grammar.
Usually the step before producing a final piece of writing. See Revise
Elaboration An explanation or extension of an idea, concept, or information
that provides a deeper, more detailed, or more thorough discussion.
Electronic journalism The use of electronic media such as the Internet to
convey new stories, editorials, or real-time information about current
events.
Enunciation Clear pronunciation of words.
Environmental print Common words found in the environment.
Epic A long narrative that tells of the deeds and adventures of a hero or
heroine. See Poetry, Hero/Heroine
Epithet An adjective or phrase used to express the characteristic of a person
or thing in poetry (e.g. rosy-fingered dawn).
Essay A brief work of nonfiction that offers an opinion on a subject. The
purpose of an essay may be to express ideas and feelings, to analyze, to
inform, to entertain, or to persuade. An essay can be formal, with thorough,
serious, and highly organized content; or informal, with a humorous or
personal tone and less rigid structure. See Exposition
Etymology The historically verifiable sources of the formation of a word and
the development of its meaning.
Explicit information Content or meaning that is specifically stated in a text
or verbal exchange.
Exposition/Expository text Writing that is intended to make clear or to
explain something using one or more of the following methods: identification,
definition, classification, illustration, comparison, and analysis. In a play
or a novel, exposition is that portion that helps the reader to understand
the background or situation in which the work is set. See Description,
Narration, Persuasion
Fable A short, simple story that teaches a lesson. A fable usually includes
animals that talk and act like people. See Folktale
Fairy tale A story written for, or told to, children. The story often
includes elements of magic and magical folk such as fairies, elves, or
goblins. See Folktale, Traditional narrative
Fallacious reasoning Faulty or mistaken logic.
Falling action In the plot of a story, the action that occurs after the
climax. During the falling action, conflicts are resolved and mysteries are
solved. See Narration, Exposition, Rising action, Climax, Resolution
Feedback The listener’s response to information and how the information was
presented.
Fiction Imaginative works of prose, primarily the novel and the short story.
Although fiction draws on actual events and real people, it springs mainly
from the imagination of the writer. The purpose is to entertain as well as
enlighten the reader by providing a deeper understanding of the human
condition. See Exposition/Expository text, Nonfiction, Informational text,
Novel, Short story
Figurative language Language that communicates ideas beyond the ordinary or
literal meaning of the words. See Simile, Metaphor, Personification,
Hyperbole
Figure of speech Literary device used to create a special effect or feeling,
often by making some type of comparison. See Hyperbole, Metaphor, Simile,
Understatement
Flashback A scene in a story or novel that returns the reader to a time
earlier than the main action.
Fluency/Automaticity Accurate and rapid word recognition including reading in
meaningful phrases which allows the reader to focus on meaning.
Focus A sharply defined point, center, or theme of an effort, written
passage, undertaking, or presentation.
Folktale A short narrative handed down through oral tradition, with various
tellers and groups modifying it, so that it acquired cumulative authorship.
Most folktales eventually move from oral tradition to written form.
Foreshadowing A writer’s use of hints or clues to indicate events that will
occur in a story. Foreshadowing creates suspense, and at the same time
prepares the reader for what is to come.
Formal communication A presentation or written piece that strictly adheres to
rules, conventions, and ceremony, and is free of colloquial expressions.
Free verse Poetry without a fixed metrical pattern.
Functional Text Writing that is used in everyday life such, as signs,
directions, letters, and manuals.
Genre A category of literature. The main literary genres are fiction,
nonfiction, poetry, and drama.
Gerund A verb form that ends in -ing and is used as a noun (e.g. Cooking is
an art.)
Grammar The study of the structure and features of a language. Grammar
usually consists of rules and standards that are to be followed to produce
acceptable writing and speaking.
Graphic organizers Visual representations that support understanding of text
(e.g. webs, t-charts, Venn diagrams, K-W-L charts).
Graphophonemic cues The use of letter/sound relationships to read a known or
unknown word.
Hero/Heroine A mythological or legendary figure often of divine descent that
is endowed with great strength or ability. The word is often broadly applied
to the principle male or female character in a literary or dramatic work. See
Protagonist
Heroic couplet Two rhyming lines written in iambic pentameter. The
term “heroic” comes from the fact that English poems having heroic themes and
elevated style have often been written in iambic pentameter. See Iambic
pentameter, Poetry, Meter
High frequency words Words found often in print.
Homograph One of two or more words spelled alike but different in meaning and
derivation or pronunciation (e.g. the noun conduct and the verb conduct). See
Homonym, Homophone
Homonym One of two or more words spelled and pronounced alike but different
in meaning (e.g. the noun quail and the verb quail). See Homograph, Homophone
Homophone One of two or more words pronounced alike but different in meaning
or derivation or spelling (e.g. the words to, too, and two). See Homonym,
Homograph
Hyperbole An intentional exaggeration for emphasis or comic effect.
Iambic pentameter A metrical line of five feet or units, each made up of an
unstressed then a stressed syllable (e.g. I have thee not, and yet I see thee
still. Macbeth, II.1.44) See Meter, Poetry
Idiom A phrase or expression that means something different from what the
words actually say. An idiom is usually understandable to a particular group
of people (e.g. using over his head for doesn’t understand).
Image/Imagery Words and phrases that create vivid sensory experiences for the
reader. Most images are visual, but imagery may also appeal to the senses of
smell, hearing, taste, or touch. See Style, Sensory detail
Imaginative/Literary text Fictional writing in story, dramatic, or poetic
form. See Informational/Expository text
Independent clause Presents a complete thought and can stand alone as a
sentence (e.g. She saw paramecia when she looked through the microscope.)
See Subordinate clause, Sentence
Infinitive A verb form that is usually introduced by to. The infinitive may
be used as a noun or as a modifier. For example, an infinitive can be used as
a direct object (The foolish teenager decided to smoke); as an adjective (The
right to smoke in public is now in serious question); or as an adverb (It is
illegal to smoke in public buildings.) See Verb
Informal communication A casual discussion, verbal exchange, note, or
memorandum that may adhere less strictly to rules and conventions (e.g. a
short note to a friend).
Informational/Expository text Nonfiction writing in narrative or non-
narrative form that is intended to inform. See Imaginative/Literary text
Implied information Content or meaning that is suggested by text or verbal
exchange, but is not specifically provided.
Inferences The forming of a conclusion from premises rather than explicit
information provided in a passage.
Inferring Merging prior knowledge with text clues to draw conclusions.
Interactive writing Instructional strategy in which the teacher and students
collaboratively share the writing responsibility to compose a coherent text.
Internal rhyme Rhyme that occurs within a single line of poetry. For example,
in the opening line of Eliot’s Gerontion, ‘Here I am, an old man in a dry
month,’ internal rhyme exists between an and man and between I and dry. See
Rhyme, Poetry
Irony The contrast between expectation and reality. This incongruity has the
effect of surprising the reader or viewer. Techniques of irony include
hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. See Hyperbole
Jargon Language used in a certain profession or by a particular group of
people. Jargon is usually technical or abbreviated and difficult for people
not in the profession to understand.
Legend A traditional story sometimes popularly regarded as historical but
unauthenticated; a myth.
Literacy The ability to read, write, speak, and understand words.
Literary devices Techniques used by a writer to convey or enhance the story
(e.g. figures of speech, foreshadowing, flashback).
Literary elements The commonly accepted structures that contribute to the
whole of a story, most commonly character, characterization, setting,
conflict resolution, main idea, supporting ideas, plot, and theme.
Literary form A categorization of written structures such as poetry or prose,
fiction or nonfiction, essay, or news article.
Main character See Protagonist
Main idea In informational or expository writing, the most important thought
or overall position. The main idea or thesis of a piece, written in sentence
form, is supported by details and explanation. See Theme, Thesis
Metacognition An awareness and understanding of how one thinks and uses
strategies during reading and writing.
Metaphor A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two things that
are basically different but have something in common. Unlike a simile, a
metaphor does not contain the words like or as. See Figurative language,
Figure of speech, Simile
Meter In poetry, the recurrence of a rhythmic pattern. See Iambic pentameter,
Monologue, Soliloquy
MLA Modern Language Association, which publishes a guide to writing research
papers based on its prescribed documentation style.
Modes of writing The different forms of writing for different purposes. See
also Descriptive, Expository, Narrative, Persuasive.
Mood The feeling or atmosphere that a writer creates for the reader. The use
of connotation, details, dialogue, imagery, figurative language,
foreshadowing, setting, and rhythm can help establish mood. See Style, Tone
Moral The lesson taught in a work such as a fable; a simple type of theme
(e.g. Do not count your chickens before they are hatched.) See Theme
Myth A traditional story passed down through generations that explains why
the world is the way it is.
Narration Writing that relates an event or a series of events; a story.
Narration can be imaginary, as in a short story or novel; or factual, as in a
newspaper account or a work of history. See Description, Exposition,
Persuasion
Narrator The person or voice telling the story. The narrator can be a
character in the story or a voice outside the action. See Point of view
Nonfiction Writing about real people, places, and events. Unlike fiction,
nonfiction is largely concerned with factual information, although the writer
shapes the information according to his or her purpose and viewpoint.
Biography, autobiography, and news articles are examples of nonfiction. See
Fiction
Non-narrative nonfiction Nonfiction written to inform, explain, or persuade
that does not use narrative structure to achieve its purpose.
Non-verbal communication Ways of conveying or altering the meaning of an
intended message other than oral speech (e.g. gestures, eye contact, facial
expression).
Noun A word that is the class name of something: a person, place, thing, or
idea. See Adjective, Adverb, Verb
Novel An extended work of fiction. Like a short story, a novel is essentially
the product of a writer’s imagination. Because the novel is much longer than
the short story, the writer can develop a wider range of characters and a
more complex plot. See Fiction, Short story
Onomatopoeia The use of a word whose sound suggests its meaning (e.g. clang,
buzz, twang).
Onset The part of the syllable that precedes the vowel (e.g. /h/ in hop,
and /sk/ in scotch). Some syllables have no onset, as in un or on. See Rime
Oral Pertaining to spoken words. See Verbal
Oral tradition Customs, opinions, beliefs, and history passed from generation
to generation by means of conversation or story telling.
Organization In writing, the arrangement of text in a conventional structure
for each paragraph, and for the relationship between paragraphs in a multi-
paragraph piece (e.g. the inclusion of an introduction, body, and
conclusion).
Overstatement See Hyperbole
Oxymoron A figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in
conjunction (e.g. That shirt is pretty ugly.)
Parallel structure The same grammatical structure of parts within a sentence
or of sentences within a paragraph. For example, the following sentence
contains parallel infinitive phrases: He wanted to join the swim team, to
high dive, and to swim in relays.
Parody Imitates or mocks another work or type of literature. Like a
caricature in art, parody in literature mimics a subject or a style. Its
purpose may be to ridicule, to broaden understanding of, or to add insight to
the original work.
Participle A verb form ending in –ing or –ed. A participle functions like an
adjective because it can modify a noun or pronoun. For example, in a glowing
coal and a beaten dog, glowing and beaten are participles.
Passive voice Indicates that the subject is being acted upon (e.g. The
secrets of electricity were discovered by Benjamin Franklin.) See Active
voice
Personification A form of metaphor in which language relating to human
action, motivation, and emotion is used to refer to non-human agents or
objects, or abstract concepts (e.g. The weather is smiling on us today; Love
is blind.) See Metaphor, Figure of speech, Figurative language
Persuasion/Persuasive writing Writing intended to convince the reader that a
position is valid or that the reader should take a specific action. Differs
from exposition in that it does more than explain; it takes a stand and
endeavors to persuade the reader to take the same position or to take action.
See Description, Exposition, Narration
Phonemic awareness/Phonological awareness Awareness that spoken language
consists of a sequence of phonemes. This awareness is demonstrated, for
example, in the ability to generate rhyme and alliteration, and in segmenting
and blending component sounds. See Phoneme, Phonics
Phoneme The smallest unit of speech sound that makes a difference in
communication (e.g. fly consists of three phonemes: /f/-/l/-/`i/).
Phonetic Representing the sounds of speech with a set of distinct symbols,
each denoting a single sound. See Phonics
Phonics The study of sounds, often used with elementary phonetics in the
teaching of reading. See Phonetic
Phrase A group of related words that lacks either a subject or a predicate or
both (e.g. by the door and opening the box.) See Clause
Plot The action or sequence of events in a story. Plot is usually a series of
related incidents that builds and grows as the story develops. There are five
basic elements in a plot line: (a) exposition; (b) rising action; (c) climax;
(d) falling action; and (e) resolution or denouement. See Climax, Conflict,
Exposition, Falling action, Resolution, Rising action
Poetry An imaginative response to experience reflecting a keen awareness of
language. Its first characteristic is rhythm, marked by regularity far
surpassing that of prose. Poetry’s rhyme affords an obvious difference from
prose. Because poetry is relatively short, it is likely to be characterized
by compactness and intense unity. Poetry insists on the specific and the
concrete. See Prose, Meter
Point of view The vantage point from which a story is told. In the first
person or narrative point of view, the story is told by one of the
characters. In the third person or omniscient point of view, someone outside
the story tells the story.
Prefix A word part that is added to the beginning of a base word that changes
the sense or meaning of the root or base word (e.g. re-, dis-, com-). See
Suffix, Root
Primary source The original person or text from which an idea, concept, or
research came. See Secondary source
Prior knowledge/Schema: A comprehension strategy that uses background
knowledge and experiences to build meaning from a text. Students access and
use their prior knowledge to distinguish between text-to-self, text-to-text,
and text-to-world connections.
Propaganda techniques Methods of conveying information selectively to produce
an opinion or action favorable to the source of the information.
Prose Writing or speaking in the usual or ordinary form. Prose becomes poetic
when it takes on rhythm and rhyme. See Poetry
Protagonist The main character or hero of a story. See Hero/Heroine
Questioning A strategy that enables students to ask questions before, during,
and after reading in order to clarify understanding and make meaning.
Resolution Also called denouement, the portion of a play or story where the
problem is solved. The resolution comes after the climax and falling action
and is intended to bring the story to a satisfactory end.
Retelling A detailed oral or written recitation of a text, including setting,
major and minor events, characters, and plot.
Revise To change a piece of writing in order to improve it in style or
content. Distinct from editing, revising often involves restructuring a piece
rather than simply editing for word choice, grammar, or spelling. See Edit
Rhetoric The art of effective expression and the persuasive use of language.
See Discourse
Rhyme scheme In poetry, the pattern in which rhyme sounds occur in a stanza.
Rhyme schemes, for the purpose of analysis, are usually presented by the
assignment of the same letter of the alphabet to each similar sound in the
stanza. The pattern of a Spenserian stanza is ababbcbcc.
Rhythm The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of poetry.
Poets use rhythm to bring out the musical quality of language, to emphasize
ideas, to create mood, to unify a work, or to heighten emotional response.
Rime The vowel and any consonants that follow it (e.g. in scotch, the rime
is /och/.) See Onset
Rising action The events in a story that move the plot forward. Rising action
involves conflicts and complications, and builds toward the climax of the
story. See Conflict, Climax, Exposition, Falling action
Root (Root word) A word or word element to which prefixes and suffixes may be
added to make other words. For example, to the root graph, the prefix di- and
the suffix –ic can be added to create the word digraphic. See Prefix, Suffix
Rubric An assessment tool for making scoring decisions; a printed set of
guidelines that distinguishes performances or products of different quality.
See Scoring guide
Satire A literary technique in which ideas, customs, behaviors, or
institutions are ridiculed for the purpose of improving society. Satire may
be gently witty, mildly abrasive, or bitterly critical, and it often uses
exaggeration for effect.
Scaffolding A temporary conceptual framework used for constructing theories.
In instruction, a means of structuring concepts to build or relate old ideas
to new learning, or to elaborate a basic concept.
Scoring guide List of criteria for evaluating student work. See Rubric
Script The text of a play, motion picture, radio broadcast, or prepared
speech that includes dialogue and stage directions.
Secondary source A quote or reference that is quoting or interpreting
information from the original creator of the idea. See Primary source
Self-correction While reading, correcting miscues without prompting.
Self-monitoring While reading, being aware of word reading and comprehension,
and correcting gaps in meaning or answering questions about text.
Semantic cues The use of meaning to read a known or unknown word.
Sentence A group of words expressing one or more complete thoughts.
Sentence fluency Accurate and rapid facility in using a variety of different
sentence patterns in a single writing activity (e.g. using phrases and
clauses at different positions in subsequent sentences to enhance meaning and
reader interest).
Setting The time and place of the action in a story, play, or poem.
Shared writing Teacher and students compose a coherent text together. The
teacher writes while scaffolding children’s language and ideas.
Short story A brief fictional work that usually contains one major conflict
and at least one main character.
Simile A comparison of two unlike things in which a word of comparison (often
like or as) is used (e.g. She stood in front of the alter, shaking like a
freshly caught trout.-- Maya Angelou) See Metaphor
Six traits A model for analyzing writing performance by examining use of
purpose/voice, idea development, organization, sentence fluency, word choice,
and conventions.
Sonnet A poem consisting of fourteen lines of iambic pentameter. See Iambic
pentameter, Poetry
Standard English conventions The widely accepted practices in English
punctuation, grammar, usage, and spelling that are taught in schools and
employed by educated speakers and writers. See Standard written English
Standard written English The variety of English used in public communication,
particularly in writing. It is the form taught in schools and used by
educated speakers and writers. See Standard English conventions
Stanza A recurring grouping of two or more verse lines in terms of length,
metrical form, and, often, rhyme scheme. See Poetry, Rhyme scheme, Verse
Stereotype A person or thing that conforms to an unjustifiably fixed
impression or attitude.
Style The particular way a piece of literature is written. Not only what is
said but also how it is said, style is the writer’s unique way of
communicating ideas. Elements contributing to style include word choice,
sentence length, tone, figurative language, and use of dialogue. See Diction,
Imagery, Tone
Subordinate (dependent) clause A clause that does not present a complete
thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence (e.g. because he was sick). See
Independent clause, Sentence
Subsume The incorporation of an idea, concept, or skill in a more complex
framework (e.g. using parts of speech to learn the structure of sentences and
to master sentence fluency).
Subtext An underlying, often distinct theme in a piece of writing or
conversation.
Suffix A word part that is added to the ending of a root word and establishes
the part of speech of that word (e.g. the suffix -ly added to immediate, an
adjective, creates the word immediately, an adverb). See also Prefix, Root
Symbol A person, place, or object that represents something beyond itself.
Symbols can concisely communicate complicated, emotionally rich ideas.
Symbolism In literature, the serious and extensive use of symbols. See Symbol
Synonym A word that has a meaning identical with, or very similar to, another
word in the same language (e.g. in some situations, right is a synonym of
correct).
Syntactic cues: The use of correct grammar to read a known or unknown word.
Syntax The way in which words are put together to form constructions, such as
phrases or sentences.
Synthesize: Combining new information with existing knowledge to form an
original idea or interpretation.
Tall tale A distinctively American type of humorous story characterized by
exaggeration. See Folktale
Technical writing Composing text for the purpose of conveying specific
information about a particular subject, craft, or occupation (e.g. creating
computer manuals or writing textbooks).
Text features Various ways of manipulating and placing text to draw attention
to or emphasize certain points or ideas in narrative (e.g. bolding or boxing
questions, italicizing key vocabulary, listing, bulleting, numbering).
Text structure The organizational pattern an author uses to structure the
ideas in a text (e.g. cause/effect, compare/contrast, description,
problem/solution, sequential, goal/action/outcome, concept/definition,
proposition/support).
Theme A central idea or abstract concept that is made concrete through
representation in person, action, and image. Theme is not simply a subject or
an activity, vice for instance, but a proposition, such as “Vice seems more
interesting than virtue but turns out to be destructive.” Sometimes the theme
is directly stated in the work, and sometimes it is given indirectly. There
may be more than one theme in a given work. See Main idea, Thesis, Moral
Thesis An attitude or position taken by a writer or speaker with the purpose
of proving or supporting it. See Theme, Main idea
Tone An expression of a writer’s attitude toward a subject. Unlike mood,
which is intended to shape the reader’s emotional response, tone reflects the
feelings of the writer. Tone can be serious, humorous, sarcastic, playful,
ironic, bitter, or objective. See Mood, Style
Topic The meaning a literary work refers to, stated in a phrase or word. See
Theme
Transitions In writing or speaking, a sentence, phrase, or paragraph that
leads from one concept or idea to the next.
Verb A word, or set of words, that expresses action or state of being.
Visualizing A strategy that enables the reader to create mental images during
the reading process.
Voice A writer’s unique use of language that allows a reader to perceive a
human personality in his or her writing. The elements of style that determine
a writer’s voice include sentence structure, diction, and tone. The term can
also be applied to the narrator of a selection. See Diction, Tone
Word derivations The tracing of the origin of a word. Many English words have
evolved from words in ancient or non-English languages, and have subsequently
come into modified use in modern English language.
Word origins A beginning, starting point, or source of a word used in modern
English language.
Writing process: The steps a writer uses to compose a text. This may include
brainstorming, writing, revising, editing and publishing