Frequently Asked Questions: This page contains answers to common questions of students and parents.
- What is Speech?
- What is Phonology?
- What is Phonological Development?
- How easy should it be to understand young children's speech?
- What is Articulation?
- What is Semantics?
- What is Pragmatics?
- What is a Word-Retrieval problem?
- What is Language?
- What is Language Processing?
What is Speech?
Speech is the spoken medium of language. The other two "mediums" or "forms"
of language are writing and gestures. Gestures range from simple iconic
movements, like pretending to drink, through to complex finger-spelling and
sign systems.
Speech is the verbal expression of language and includes articulation, which
is the way words are formed.
What is Phonology?
Phonology is a branch of linguistics. It is concerned with the study of the
sound systems of languages.
The aims of phonology are to demonstrate the patterns of distinctive sound
contrasts in a language, and to explain the ways speech sounds are organised
and represented in the mind.
The term "phonology" is used clinically as a referent to an individual’s
speech sound system - for example, "her phonology" might refer to "her
phonological system", or "her phonological development".
What is Phonological Development?
The gradual process of acquiring adult speech patterns is called
phonological development.
Putting it another way, the emergence in children of a properly organised
speech sound system is called phonological development.
Phonological development involves three aspects:
the way the sound is stored in the child’s mind;
the way the sound is actually said by the child;
the rules or processes that map between the two above.
How easy should it be to understand young children's speech?
Table 4: Normal phonetic development
Age by which 75% of children accurately use the speech sound listed Speech
sounds The manner in which the speech sounds are produced
3 years
h as in he
zh as in measure
y as in yes
w as in we
ng as in sing
m as in me
n as in no
p as in up
k as in car
t as in to
b as in be
g as in go
d as in do
3 years 6 months
f as in if
4 years
l as in lay
sh as in she
ch as in chew
4 years 6 months
j as in jaw
s as in so
z as in is
5 years
r as in red
6 years
v as in Violin
8 years
th as in this
8 years 6 months
th as in thing
What is Articulation?
Articulation is a general term used in phonetics to denote the physiological
movements involved in modifying the airflow, in the vocal tract above the
larynx, to produce the various speech sounds. Sounds are classified
according to their place and manner of articulation in the vocal mechanism
(Crystal,1991).
What is Semantics?
Semantics is the aspect of language function that relates to understanding
the meanings of words, phrases and sentences, and using words appropriately
when we speak. Children with semantic difficulties have a very hard time
understanding the meaning of words and sentences.
This is sometimes apparent from their unusual responses when they are told
to do something, and sometimes it is revealed by the questions they ask, and
the things they say about words. There is an example here of 12 year old
Nerida's interpretation of the word "acquire". In the example, she was
unable to detect from the context that she was being asked what "acquire",
rather than "a choir" meant.
People with semantic processing difficulties have particular trouble with
abstract words like 'curious' or 'vague', words that relate to feelings and
emotions such as 'embarrassed' and 'anxious', and words that refer to status
(for instance 'expert' or 'authority') or degree (for example, 'essential'
or 'approximate').
They have difficulty with idioms, sayings and slang expressions, often
taking them literally or interpreting them oddly. For example, when asked if
he enjoyed spending time with his friends, a 14 year old with semantic
processing problems replied, "I don't see how you can spend time, and I
certainly don't see how you could enjoy it because spending time is not
something you can do. You can only actually spend money".
Another difficulty children with semantic problems experience is that they
may not be able to identify the key point or topic in a sentence, and
because of this may suddenly change the subject, very obscurely, apparently
thinking they are on the same subject. Here is another real example from a
girl aged eleven. Question: "Could you get the book off the shelf and give
it to me?" Reply: "The Gulf Stream warms the coast-line"
What is Pragmatics?
Pragmatics is the area of language function that embraces the use of
language in social contexts (knowing what to say, how to say it, and when to
say it - and how to "be" with other people).
Children with pragmatic difficulties have great trouble using language
socially in ways that are appropriate or typical of children of their age.
They often do not understand that we take turns to talk, and they will "talk
over the top of you" at times, or, at other times respond to what you say
with inappropriate silences, or in a voice that is too quiet. They may
interrupt excessively and talk irrelevantly or about things the listener
shows no interest in. Their communicative behaviour often appears rude and
inconsiderate.
They often do not assume prior knowledge. So for example, one boy explained
to me in minute detail how to wash a car, wrongly assuming that I needed
(and wanted) the information and that I had never washed a car.
On the other hand, they may assume prior knowledge that the listener could
not possibly have, and launch into a long disquisition without describing in
sufficient detail the participants, location and general background of their
story.
They can go on far too long telling stories, and include so much detail that
the listener becomes disinterested.
.
Pragmatics skills include:
knowing that you have to answer when a question has been asked;
being able to participate in a conversation by taking it in turns with the
other speaker;
the ability to notice and respond to the non-verbal aspects of language
(reacting appropriately to the other person's body language and 'mood', as
well as their words);
awareness that you have to introduce a topic of conversation in order for
the listener to fully understand;
knowing which words or what sort of sentence-type to use when initiating a
conversation or responding to something someone has said;
the ability to maintain a topic (or change topic appropriately,
or 'interrupt' politely);
the ability to maintain appropriate eye-contact (not too much staring, and
not too much looking away) during a conversation; and
the ability to distinguish how to talk and behave towards different
communicative partners (formal with some, informal with others).
What is a Word-Retrieval problem?
Stuck for words? The terms "word-retrieval problem" or "word finding
difficulty" imply that the person knows and understands the word, and
has used it correctly before. However, they have difficulty retrieving such
known words at times.
Activities to help:
* Activities are aimed at having the child retrieve known words-not
extending the vocabulary by teaching new words.
* Use a minimum of visual cues. If the word to be "retrieved" does not come
easily for your child, provide an auditory cue (e.g., say the first sound or
syllable of the word) or verbal clue (e.g., "it rhymes with...).
* Give the child time to think, but don't leave it so long that they are
struggling to find the word. Rather than letting them persist
unsuccessfully, tell them the answer, and go on with the next few items.
Then ask them the one that was difficult again.
More helpful tips:
1. Talk about words and word-meanings
Talk about why certain names might have been chosen for pets and TV
characters (Cookie Monster, Rugrats, Inspecter Gadget, etc).
2. Read, read, read!
Books about rhymes.
Books about opposites.
Books about word classification (e.g., vehicles, tools, occupations, books
about animals and thier young).
Books that tell a story (e.g., The Cat in the Hat)
3. Play impromptu word-games
Games involving transforming one part of speech to another are particularly
helpful, e.g.:
Today I am riding, yesterday I ...(rode)
Today I am driving, yesterday I...(drove)
Today I am sleeping, yesterday I...(slept)
Yesterday I rode, tomorrow I will... (ride)
4.Incorporate cloze-tasks into story-reading
When you read stories, recite rhymes or sing songs, include "obvious"
sentence completion routines, e.g. " Baa baa black sheep, have you any...
(wool).
5.Read riddle books and tell jokes
Choose knock-knock jokes, riddles, etc that rely upon accurate word-
retrieval to make them funny. Make up silly words for familiar rhymes,
e.g.: "Jack and Jill went up the hill to fetch some...spaghetti?"
6. Play word-classification games
These games might include ones such as: "See how many boys' names you can
think of in one minute. Time yourself while you do it". Other categories
that might be fun or interesting include: tools, games, drinks, movies,
animals, toys, clothes, sports, flowers, colors, etc..
7. Play " pick the word that does not belong"
For example, " which one is the odd one out: cat dog tree mouse
8. Play " which two words go together?"
For example, "watch pig nail clock"
9. Play games involving synonyms
For instance, " Can you think of another word that means big?" "Can yu tell
me another word for smart?"
10. Play word-association games
For example: "pilot goes with..."(plane), "cab goes with..."(driver), ship
goes with..." (sailor)
What is Language?
Language is a learned form that has three forms...
*gesturing
*speaking
*reading
These three forms allow us to...
-develop and communicate our thoughts and ideas
-express our wants, needs and personality
-experience numerous aspects of our world
Language involves...
Receptive language
understanding speech, writing, gestures
Expressive language
speaking, writing, gesturing
Pragmatics
interpreting and using speech, writing and gestures in "appropriate" ways
Language is much broader and refers to the entire system of expressing and
receiving information in a way that's meaningful. It's understanding and
being understood through communication - verbal, nonverbal, and written
What is Language Processing?
Language processing comprises of any or all of the mental operations needed
to- perceive, recognise, represent(gestures,speech,writing).
*gestures-natural gestures like pretending to yawn,signs, finger spelling...
*speech-sounds-words-grammatical inflections-sentence forms-narratives-
discourse...
*writing-letters-words-sentences-stories