A. TheTraditional Divisions Philosophy
Every question in philosophy is rooted
back to these 3 questions: What is knowledge? What is real? What is right and
good? Philosophical topics are grouped in the following categories: Knowledge,
Reality, and Value. These explore the following fields: Epistemology
Metaphysics Ethics
Epistemology:
Means the study of knowledge; In knowledge you will find that there isn’t one
main truth but instead many conflicting truths. There are 2 different ways of
thinking: 1. Theoretical thinking 2. Anarchic thinking ... Both kinds of
thinking affect the relationship between men and women. Theoretical Thinking:
believing one truth and that all other truths or opinions are wrong (male
driven thinking). Anarchic thinking believing there are many different equally
valid or true truths (female driven thinking).
Metaphysics Topics: Humans
place in the universe The purpose and nature of reality Nature of mind, self,
and consciousness, also Religion : Existence of God : Destiny of the Universe
: Immortality of the Soul & Theories: All things and all human beings are
unfree. Human beings are ultimately free and we all have the freedom to make
ourselves the person we want to be. Viktor Frankl: Everything done in our
past will determine our present situation. Karma combines determinism and
freedom
Questions: Is everything in the universe
determined by outside causes or are we in control? Is all reality pre
determined? Are we completely free to choose our own paths? Or are we
free to choose with in constraints set by our pasts?
Gandhi’s View:
Lay down ones life so others may live. Another View:
“Selfishness is and should be everyone’s policy; Harry Browne argues that
just because one gets satisfaction from helping others doesn’t make them
selfish
Quotes:
“The highest love is where in man lays down his life for his fellow men. That
highest love is Ahimsa.” Gandhi “Love means feeling friendship for the
enemy.” Questions: What basic moral principal should we follow?
Is abortion, suicide and euthanasia ever morally right? Is Capitalism or
Communism a better form? Should adultery, pornography, capital punishment, or
homosexuality be legal or illegal? Is morality a fraud or is our duty to love
and serve even our enemies?
An Example of Philosophy: Socrates:
The Pre- Socrates where around before Socrates, they questioned religious
authority and tried to provide non- religious explanations of nature. Socrates
was often called the father of western philosophy; Socrates started
questioning the conventional beliefs of others. He would ask irreverent
questions about their opinions and was often known to ask questions to the
point of irritation, puzzling and anger. When studying Socrates you realize
that he never gave answers to his questions this is because he wanted you to
realize that we both don’t have the answers. Socrates would ask question like
what is justice and what does it mean?, What do all just things have in
common?. He would ask question of the following ideas virtue, knowledge,
morality, and religion. When the plague hit, because of Socrates continuous
questioning was used as a scapegoat. It was said that his questioning weakened
Athenians traditional values and beliefs, and Socrates was sentenced to death.
Since Socrates did not write down his thoughts luckily Plato his disciple did.
Socrates speech is an excellent example of what philosophy is : it is the
quest of wisdom, an unrelenting devotion to uncover the truth about what
matters most in life. This quest is undertaken in the conviction that a life
based on an easy uncritical acceptance is an empty life; The unexamined life
is not worth living” …Socrates. There is a point where Socrates questions his
own beliefs, and you may have asked yourself some of these questions, Is it
true that moral right and wrong doesn’t depend on what society thinks?, Do we
have to obey the laws of society even to the death?, Should we obey any lay no
matter how terrible it is? To answer these questions we must decide for
ourselves but first it is important to recognize the question..
B: Value of Philosophy: Self
Actualization
Abraham Maslow discusses a form of
fulfillment known as self actualization. Self actualization is knowing how to
differentiate the physical wants of ones life and the physical needs of ones
life from the spiritual journey of an individual. Furthermore, psychiatrist
Carl Rogers names an individual who has achieved this form of fulfillment as
"the fully functioning person." Some characteristics of a self actualized
individual include: the ability to form one's own opinions and beliefs,
profound self awareness, spiritual flexibility, creativity and ethically
fueled in politics, the arts etc.
Understanding of Philosophy
Philosophy does not conform to institution
or religion but rather opens up and allows for the acceptance of many beliefs
and ethical understandings. Philosophy does not subject itself to just males
or females but to all those with an inquiring mind.
Biography of Viktor Frankl
Viktor Frankl was born on
March 26, 1907
in
Vienna,
Austria
. As a youth, Viktor was part of many social organizations which ultimately
fueled his intentions into becoming a psychiatrist. Upon graduating from high
school in 1925, Frankl met and calibrated with well known psychiatrist Sigmund
Freud. Frankl used the knowledge he had attained through various discussions
with Freud and through his own research and investigation to create a new sect
of Viennese psychology known as logotherapy. In 1940, in the midst of the
German occupation, Frankl was sent to
Auschwitz and various
other concentration camps where he had spent the next five years of his life.
In 1945, Frankl's concentration camp was liberated and he was finally able to
return home to
Vienna
. Unfortunately for Frankl, his return home was in despair has he had realized
that all of his loved ones had passed due to the German occupation. Life
following his captivity in
Germany
was spent at his home in
Vienna
. In 1997, Frankl published his most influential and popular book known as
Man's Search for Meaning. In Man's Search for Meaning, Frankl discusses his
time in
Germany
and comments on the psychological affect and aspects of camp life. Moreover,
Frankl writes extensively about logotherapy, which focuses on the individual's
meaning to life as opposed to a global meaning to all life. On
September 2, 1997, Frankl
passed away leaving behind a legacy that will never be forgotten.
.
C: Philosophy of Education: Thales,
Voltaire & Krishnamurti, pp 42
HW: Why is Thales considered to be one of
the first philosophers? What does Voltaire's story of The Good Brahman
teach about the nature of ignorance? What is the true function of education?
D: LOGIC:
Philosophy is NOT speculation. Speculation is the drumming up of ideas and
visions of how things might be. By philosophizing, we attempt to prove that
our visions and ideas are true. Philosophers show the root of their vision or
assumption, by stating their reasons for the views they proposed. LOGICAL
REASONING is the core of philosophizing, because without it, every thought
and idea would be pure speculation. Below are terms used to distinguish
between good and valid reasoning, and bad and invalid reasoning: Fallacy:
is an incorrect way of reasoning; an argument that fails to persuade
logically. Valid: In logic, having a conclusion that follows from the
premises by logical necessity.
Logical syllogisms
are presented in an argument form with premises presented as reasons for
accepting the conclusion. Deductive argument: An argument in
which the premises are intended to show that the conclusion must necessarily
be true. Inductive argument: An argument in which the premises
are intended to show that the conclusion is probably true. Formal
fallacy: An argument whose form is such that the premises do not guarantee
the conclusion. Categorical statement: A statement that asserts or denies
that part or all of one category of things is included in part or all of
another category of things. Categorical syllogism: An argument that consists
of two premises and a conclusion, which are all categorical statements, and
that contains exactly three terms.
Hypothetical argument:
An argument containing hypothetical or conditional statements. A hypothetical
argument is made up of two simpler statements, the first sentence being the
premise, and the second simple sentence being the conclusion. Hypothetical
syllogism: A hypothetical argument consisting of two premises and a
conclusion in which one of the premises is a hypothetical statement (consists
of two simpler statements) and the other premise, and the conclusion consists
of either the antecedent or the consequent of that hypothetical.
.
E: Chapter 2: Intro to Human Nature,
pp. 76-81 - Why Study Human Nature?
The most basic question in philosophy is:
Who and what am I?; Human Nature: what it essentially means to be a human
being; what makes us different from everyone else. Human nature will
essentially affect the way you see yourself, how you see others, and how you
live. Psychologists have pondered the question of if human nature is
self-interested or whether unselfish acts can also motivate human beings. Some
psychologists have come to the conclusion that some humans are essentially
cruel and selfish. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Men are not gentle, friendly
creatures wishing for love, but possess a powerful measure of desire for
aggressiveness. Long before Sigmund Freud, British philosopher Thomas Hobbes
(1588-1679) argued for a particularly similar view of human nature. Thomas
Hobbes was a materialist who stated that the Universe, that is the whole mass
of things that are, is corporeal, that is to say body. Along with Hobbes,
human to are material bodies, and their activities can be explained, such like
that of a biological mechanism. Desire has moved human beings to act on
things. When humans do something, they seek satisfaction of their own
mechanical desires. Hobbes said that, the desire for power by humans is what
mainly motivates them.
Moritz Schlick (1882-1936) says that we
don’t need to look at aggression to see self-interest at work. Schlick argued
for the view called psychological egoism. Psychological Egoism: the belief
that human beings are so constituted, that they must always act out of
self-interest. Self-interest is present even in the most unselfish behaviors.
Even when no egoistic motive is present, self-interested motivations are
always operating in human beings. Quote: “Of all created creatures man is
the most detestable. Of the entire brood he is the only one that possesses
malice. Also, he is the only creature that has a nasty face." Mark
Twain.
Human view of human nature also reflects
their relationship to the universe. Your own perception of human nature will
determine how you think we should set up our society. Outspoken opponent of
behaviorism Arthur Koestler (1905-1983) believes that it does make a
difference which view of human nature you believe. American philosopher and
psychologist William James (1842-1910) suffered throughout his own life from
emotional disorders that left him feeling alienated.
HW: Are there psychological differences
between men and women? Is this the result of nature or nurture? Are human
beings basically selfish as Freud suggests? What defines us as human beings?
F: Western view of Human Nature, pp.
81-91: What is Human Nature?
The traditional view of human nature asks
us to make the assumption that all human beings have a soul or as some call
it, a self. Self: the individual person; the ego; the knower; that which
persists through changes in a person. The self is tied to the perception that
all human life has a unique individual destiny, and that our self is different
from our physical aspects. Our body is purely material, needing only material
needs, where our self is separate; a spiritual or nonmaterial entity. We can
call this view, “the traditional western view of human nature”. There are two
different versions of the traditional view The traditional rationalist view &
The traditional western religious view The Traditional Rationalist View - The
rationalist view has inspired many western thinkers and philosophers. - We
view the human race as a thinker that is capable of reason. - Plato stated
that the human self was defined by three controlling attributes: Reason,
Aggression & Appetite Appetite - A part of the human self that is plagued with
desire. - Plato claimed it was located in the abdomen - Craves physical
delights such as wealth, hunger, thirst and sexual desires. Aggression - The
aggressiveness or self-assertiveness part of the human self. - According to
Plato, aggression resides in the chest - Is displayed in war, anger and in
those who desire power. Reason - The uniquely human capacity for thinking
reflectively and drawing conclusions; it si the ability to follow
relationships from one thought to another in an orderly and correct way. -
Resides in the brain and is the most important part of human nature, and
represents those who desire knowledge. The one true element of human nature
that dominates is reason. Aggression and appetite have no knowledge how to
order or control themselves, and therefore must be taken under control of
reason. The goal of human nature is to allow reason to take control of
appetite and aggression to discover the truth on how life should be lived.
Only reason can comprehend these truths, and without reason in control, the
self cannot come to realization on that truth. If one continues to allow
appetite and aggression to freely feed their needs, total control would be
lost in time. People can then become slaves to those appetites and
aggressions. The Traditional Western Religious Views of Human Nature The
western religious view of human nature encourages the tradition that humans
are made in the image of God. We are classified as divine beings because we
contain the ability to love and worship God. Since God gives this love, it is
divine, and so allows humans to share in divinity. The two traditional views
are much alike, even so that some of the Rationalist views were assimilated
into the religious views. Such as the belief that the human self is a rational
self, an immaterial soul that is conscious and that can think. But it is with
the help and love of God that the self can overcome appetite and aggression.
Also, the thought that the self is immaterial and immortal has given means to
the religious views of afterlives and the notion that ones soul can live on
forever with God. The religious views also promote the idea of a moral self.
This method of moral self states that each of us is capable of great good, but
also great evil. Refusing to serve and love God is the greatest evil, such as
injustice, vanity, pride and dishonesty. When ever we commit offences against
God, we lose touch with ourselves by dehorning our alliance with God. Will:
The ability to choose between good and evil It is said that humans have both
reason and will. To know the truth about God and choose to love that God
G: Challenging Tradition,
Existentialism, pp. 91-98:
Darwin proposed 2 key ideas: 1.) Plants
and animals sometimes give birth to offspring with slight variations from
themselves. These slightly altered offspring can pass this variation onto
their offspring. Darwin argued that these variations happen randomly and by
chance. 2.) Animals are constantly in a struggle to exist. They are always
straining to stay alive. The organism with an advantageous variation has a
better chance at survival than one without this variation, or one with an
unfavorable difference. The stronger and better equipped for the struggle will
continue life and create numerous improved offspring. The weak die, and no
longer pass on their characteristics. * As more individuals are produced than
can possibly survive, there must in every case be a struggle for existence,
either one individual with another of the same species, or with the
individuals of distinct species, or with thephysical conditions of life.
(Darwin 91) · Natural selection: preserving favourable individual differences
and variations, and destroying those which are injurious, i.e. Survival of the
Fittest (Darwin) · Evolution: change in the genetic composition during
successive generations, as a result of natural selection, and resulting in the
development of new species. Ex. Pg 93 The lobe fish over millions of years may
have evolved into amphibians, than to dinosaurs, and then to birds. · Over
time, one species could completely evolve into another. The thought that the
world is ever changing shook many people from their thought of a comfortable
static environment. · Darwin declared only arrogance gave way to the opinion
that human beings were formed in God’s image. · Traditional View -although
humans are animals, we have a unique characteristic -ability to reason makes
us unique -makes us God like -it is not just a more developed version of an
animal ability -we were made for a purpose Darwinian View - evolved from lower
animals therefore ability to reason is an evolved animal ability - humans
aren’t made in God’s image but ape like - have no purpose, just a chance
happening in the evolutionary tree Does Darwin disprove the Traditional
theory? Darwin Criticisms - main evidence are fossils - Darwin said the
fossils, chronologically, show gradual change - Critics say, when fossils
studied, they show sudden appearances of species - the gradual steps are
missing, but that could be b/c they haven’t been found yet; the sudden jumps
or appearance could be how evolution happens - Opponents say it’s a mistake to
assume the theory of evolution wipes out the possibility that humans have a
purpose. 2 ways to understand evolution: 1.) Naturalistic: completely
explainable using natural law with no divine intervention 2.) Theistic: divine
direction and intent at every crucial stage of the evolution in accordance
with the divine plan; Was the theistic view a legitimate opinion, or a way to
embrace modern science, while not having to question one’s religious
foundation? Existentialism Existentialism: a twentieth century philosophy that
denies any essential human nature; each of us creates our own essence through
free action, we are whatever we make of ourselves Jean-Paul Sartre (1905 –
1980), chief thinker on atheistic existentialism · “Man is nothing at birth
and throughout his life he is no more than the sum of his past commitments.”
(Sartre, Blupete) · As humans we are “condemned to be free” (Sartre 96) b/c we
can’t rely on God who doesn’t exist or society to justify our actions. We must
suffer the agony our decision making gives us. · Human condition à we are free
· Believes emotions are choices we make on how we want to view the world · We
constantly want to escape the anguish from being responsible for ourselves. We
pretend that it’s our environment or genetics that makes us what we are. When
we try to be passive rather than active, we are acting in “bad faith” -
Self-deception = bad faith ·An example: a “cafe waiter who is doing his job
just a little too keenly; he is obviously 'acting the part'. If there is bad
faith here, it is that he is trying to identify himself completely with the
role of waiter, to pretend that this particular role determines his every
action and attitude. Whereas the truth is that he has chosen to take on the
job, and is free to give it up at any time. He is not essentially a waiter,
for no man is essentially anything." (Sartre, Blupete) · Since we have no
human nature, we cannot be defined until we define ourselves, therefore we
have no plotted out purpose; we simply exist, much like Darwin’s simple
existence according to evolution; a human is essentially nothing · radical
responsibility that we are completely accountable for our nature and purpose ·
inability to blame others for our faults is the basis for our feelings of
guilt, fear, and loneliness; also basis for our uncertainties concerning
death, where we confront the meaninglessness of our existence · Is it
comforting or disturbing to think you are completely in control of your own
destiny?
H: Feminism, Mind-Body, Dualism, pp.
99-108:
How Do Mind and Body Relate? Body is an
eternal entity; The mind is an immaterial substance; it is based on
consciousness which can only be experienced by the person to whose body it
belongs; therefore I am only aware of my own consciousness, but can not be
aware of someone else’s mind/consciousness. Human beings consist of both body
and mind, the mental and physical, the immaterial and the material Our mind’s
thoughts & desires have an effect on how our body behaves; our bodies are also
able to affect the mind. This duality of the human being has puzzled many.
Some believe that humans consist of two separate things; mind and body.
However, others, mainly scientists, believe that we only consist of bodies and
that our mind is simply a property of the body’s brain.
Descartes, a dualist believes about the
mind that: We can conceive of ourselves as existing without a body and
Therefore self and body must be separate; self mustn’t be part of the body.
One cannot think of themselves without thinking. Therefore, thinking is an
important part of the essence of self. Therefore, a human is comprised of two
things: the immaterial, conscious mind and the material, unconscious body.
This is called dualism. BUT!! If the mind is immaterial and not part of the
physical world where the material body resides, how is it that the mind
affects the body?
Here are three philosopher’s theories: 1.
Descartes: Mind/Body interact, possibly through the Pineal Gland near the
brain. 2.Leibniz: Mind/Body seem to interact, yet operate independently of
each other. 3. Malebranche: God synchronizes the body and
the mind...
Modern Feminism “The Problem With Today’s
Feminism” It seems to empower women to be equals of men, however, teaches
women to be dependant on men and government under the false pretences that
women have their own rights. Feminists of the past have gained the right to
vote (Suffrage Movement), have torn down barriers by taking predominately male
jobs and have changed the way that society views women; they now feel as if
there is nothing else to accomplish and have turned to advocating certain
issues to bring men down. These issues include: a. Abortion, b. Domestic
Violence, c. Affirmative Action
Alexander believes that this proves that:
“it is based on the premise that women are not as capable as men and need
extra help from the government in order to get ahead of –not just equal to-
men.” This seems to create a ‘new’ woman, who thinks of herself as a victim,
chooses to underachieve, uses the government to give herself artificial
advantages over men and remains economically dependant on men.
I: Materialism, Behaviorism, pp.
108-112 :
Materialism –
Instead of having a material body and an immaterial mind, materialism deals
with the concept that only a material mind can control a material body. They
say that our feelings, thoughts and dreams are not something of the
consciousness but rather only physical and chemical processes. It is our
senses that trigger our brain to let out certain chemicals to create an
emotion or thought. Reductionism- is the idea that we can understand
one reality in terms of another. So within the argument that the mind is only
material, we are taking the mind seems to consist of something immaterial
dealing with the consciousness, it is actually in fact only material.
Hobbes Theory on
Materialism- He
explains that all we are made up of are material substances so how can our
mind be anything more. Since he was developing all these different theories in
a time where scientific discovery was based on measuring and observing with
our senses, he made the conclusion that one day we will be able to measure
mental states in our mind because they are simply just chemical reactions.
The identity theory
says that the states that we experience with conscious are identical to the
states of the brain which is physical. So one day they will be able to see the
conscious states of the brain.
PROBLEMS! - The
brain itself is quite physical making the task of observing its states not
that hard. We are able to go into surgery and open up our brains and see
different components and examine what is actually going on. Our conscious
experiences can not be seen by the human eye at all. So therefore one can
argue they are two separate things, if they can not be measured the same way.
Behaviorism-
Is another kind of materialism. Since it is not possible to observe different
states of the conscious so psychologist turn to observing what is viewable,
which would be our behavior. They see our behavior as a window so to speak
into viewing our mental state. Our behavior reflects to our state of mind
because they are associated. Conscious disappears with behaviorism. They say
that it is possible to see what the other person is going to feel or think
before they even feel or think it because behaviors can be observed.
PROBLEMS! - In
some cases it is easy to mask or act out a different emotion even though you
feel or thinking completely contrary to your actions
J: Functionalism, pp. 112-118:
What is functionalism?
Is a theory of the mind in
philosophy, developed largely as an alternative to both the identity theory of
mind and behaviorism. Its idea is that mental states (beliefs, desires, being
in pain, etc.) are composed only by their functional role and their casual
relations to other mental states, sensory inputs, and behavioral outputs.
During the middle part of the twentieth century, scientist made great strides
in inventing powerful machines that could calculate and maneuver bits of
information at an amazing rate. Unlike earlier forms of behaviorism,
functionalism allows that mental states can explain other mental states; thus,
it gives a greater role to mental states than did earlier forms of
behaviorism. But functionalism seems to leave something out. People argue
that functionalism leaves out ehe inner conscious states we are directly
aware of. Now, functionalism says that if two people have exactly the same
inputs and give exactly the same outputs, those two people have exactly the
same inner mental state. So functionalism says that the inner conscious states
of the two people must be exactly the same. That is wrong. Inside, what one
person consciously experiences is different from what the other person
consciously experiences. In spite of the difficulties of functionalism, it led
some philosophers to the view that the human brain is a kind of computer that
processes inputs and generates outputs. Some functionalists believe that very
soon computers will be able to imitate the input-output processing of the
human brain. Alan Turing for example predicted that it is only a matter of
time before computers will match the abilities of the human mind and pass the
“Turing Test” According to Alan, “If we cannot distinguish between the answers
a computer gives to questions and the answers a human being gives, then the
computer has a mind.”
Another philosophy John
Searle pointed out that a computer is nothing more than a machine that
follows the instructions in its program. He states that human minds have
something that a computer program does not have. Consciousness. Consciousness
is necessary to the human mind, and a computer program does not have
consciousness. An American philosophy David J. Chalmers argues that there
could be a world that is physically identical to ours except that it has no
conscious beings in it. Consciousness is not a physical feature of the world.
Instead, it is a nonmaterial property of the world.
If Functionalism were
correct it would mean that the mind is a physical thing, and we are not
immaterial. This means that we are not unique and therefore there is no
spiritual realm. Also we do not have souls and we die with our bodies.
Functionalism may be compared both to behaviorism and identity theory in its
relation of mental events. Behaviorism defines mental events only in relation
to sensory input and behavioral output. Unfortunately, this includes any
input/output device, such as a mousetrap, to which we would not want to
feature mental states. However, in addition to input and output relations,
functionalism also acknowledges causal relations with other internal mental
states, which mousetraps do not demonstrate (such as the mental state of
worry). Identity theory controls mental events to brain activity.
Functionalism acknowledges that mental events may be instantly in systems or
machines other than brains.
K: Enduring Self? pp. 118-130:
IS THERE AN ENDURING SELF: The Traditional
Western view of human nature makes an assumption that may seem so obvious that
you would feel stupid not to question it. This view assumes that you are today
the same person you were earlier in your life. In other words it assumes that
we humans are selves that endure through time. You will insist that you are
the same self from one day to the next: you'll insist that you're the same
self from one week to the next, from one month to the next, from one year to
the next, from one decade to the next. We each carry with us, then, this
belief that we remain the same person- one and the same self - throughout our
lives.
The traditional
western view says that in each living human body is a soul. This soul is not
made out of physical stuff like the body. Instead the soul is 'immaterial' or
spiritual. The soul, in fact, is the self: the 'me' who lives inside my body.
This soul remains the same as the body changes. et as long as the soul remains
in my body, I remain the same person. Perhaps the most radical view of human
nature is those that completely deny the existence of an enduring self. The
existence and significance of the individual self is, in fact, the foundation
of the most Western thought. Westerners tend to believe that the private self
is all important and that individuality should be exalted. We are taught that
it is terrible important to become aware of who we really are and we each feel
that our inner self is a unique being with the immeasurable dignity and worth.
Much of eastern philosophy, in fact, is based on the notion that the
individual self does not exist. Eastern philosophy holds that the delusion
that the self exists is the source of all suffering and pain.
Central to
Buddhist thought is the belief that all things are composite and transient.
All things aggregates composed of elements that inevitably change over time.
Therefore nothing abides permanently as an individual. Constant movement and
change characterize everything, including the gods, and all living things. We
are left, then, with a mystery. We assume in virtually everything we do that
we have an enduring self; that we remain the same person from day to day, so
does everyone else. Every day, every hour, every moment, we are engaged in
making preparations for this individual self. Yet when we probe this ordinary
assumption it seems there is little to support it. Neither the body nor the
soul, nor even memory seems to provide a sounds basis for our belief that we
endure through time.
L: Independence, Individuals, pp.
130-140:
Are we independent beings? How would Hegel
explain relationships? Why are relationships important? What does this topic
have to do with group responsibility? What is Independence? It is the ability
to choose for yourself the course your life will take. What is Freedom? It is
the power to act or speak or think without externally imposed restraints.
Atomistic View of the Self- This is the view that a person is, like an atom,
self-contained and independent. How do you know whom you Really Are Inside?
17th Century French Philosopher Rene
Descartes said: You can reach your inner self by withdrawing from others
and examining your soul. You make yourself who you are; you choose your own
path. What defines an individual? His/her Desires, fears, hope, loves,
hatred, and will.
18th century German
philosopher, Immanuel Kant, supported Descartes by saying: The core of
the self is ability to choose or will independent of external forces.
Aristotle had challenged the atomistic view of the self by believing that our
relationships with others are what define us.
19th century German philosopher W.F.
Hegel explained that: We only know certain human qualities only when
others recognize those qualities in us. We only know we are free and
independent when recognized as so. Ex- child only feels loved when you tell
him so; you become helpless when people see you as helpless. This struggle for
recognition has become the life and death struggle. Two social classed come
out of this idea. The Dominant masters and the submissive slaves. Eventually
the tables turn; master becomes dependent on the slave. We make people
submissive by lack of respect and recognition that could instead empower them
and free them. Ex- minority groups or women. Culture is a mirror through which
society shows the person who and what he really is.
20th century Canadian
philosopher Charles Taylor followed Hegel and said: Who I am depends on
relationships with others. A person Identifies himself by his culture
(ethnicity, raze, music, food, clothes, language, religion, class). 20th
century philosopher William James tried to describe how we react to
these relationships: Since people recognize different characteristics in a
person, therefore every person has multiple personalities.
M: Plato, Aristotle and Confucius, pp.
144-161 :
Plato
-Felt that Socrates’
reliance on reason was the key to the solution of the many political and
cultural problems that plagued Athens
-was the first philosopher
to develop philosophical notions of human nature, human knowledge and
metaphysics
-Most of what we know
about Plato’s philosophy is based on the dialogues he wrote
-Said that objects in our
world never perfectly embody their forms
-The form of a thing is
what makes it what it is.
-The form of a certain
class of objects consists of those characteristics that make those objects the
way they are. Example; the form of a horse consists of the characteristics
that make a horse a horse.
-visible objects are
imperfect and changing reflections of the invisible unchanging forms.
-said the soul consisted
of 3 parts: reason, emotion and desire. Emotion and reason must summit to
reason in order for the soul to be in harmony.
-when the 3 parts of the
soul are in perfect harmony we can be virtuous and happy.
Aristotle
-rejected Plato’s view on
the invisible forms
-believed that forms are
visible and have four causes which make them what they are.
-Everything is made out of
a certain matter which is produced by certain causes and made to serve a
purpose.
-Said that humans are
constantly searching for something, this something is the final cause that
explains why we do what we do.
-Happiness is this end. It
is completely self sufficient.
- Virtue requires learning
to avoid both excess and deficiency
-Human happiness is
achieved by living with virtue and when we find our basic purpose
Confucius
-Developed a different
philosophical approach
-His views are written as
quotations, and not long explanations or dialogues. His views are stored in
the Analects
-He thought that to
develop our human nature we must develop virtue
-Perfect virtue consists
of 5 things; gravity, generosity of soul, sincerity, earnestness, and kindness.
-Claims virtue is the
basis for all morality and the equality that distinguishes humans from animals.
-Achieving virtue requires
self restraint in the use of ones conduct
N: Chapter 3: Metaphysics: Reality and
Being, pp. 178-189:
What is real? What does reality consist
of? Many might conclude that reality consists of the hard enduring objects
around you that can be seen, heard, touched and smelled. If this is so, then
how can God exist? What about the abstract forces in our lives such as
justice, goodness, liberty, truth, beauty and love? Many people have died for
their beliefs in such forces. Furthermore, if so many people are willing to
devote their entire lives to these ideals, then doesn't this devotion imply
that they must be real, even if these forces cannot be heard, touched and
smelled. If these forces are real then is it possible for spirits to exist as
well? Is all reality matter, or is there another form of reality? These are
the questions that continue to be debated when it comes to the nature of
reality. Materialism: The metaphysical position that reality is
composed ultimately of matter. Idealism: In metaphysics, the position
that reality is ultimately non matter. Pragmatism: The philosophical school of
thought that tries to mediate between idealism and materialism by rejecting
all first principles, tests, truth though workability. It views the universe
as pluralistic. Existentialism: The philosophy that denies any
essential human nature, and states that each of us creates our own essence
through free action. Eastern Materialism: The Charvaka Philosophers of
India:The Charvaka Philosophers believed that we should seek happiness in this
material world and its physical pleasures and turn away from religion and its
delusions. Sense perception is our only valid source of knowledge about the
world. Inductive and deductive reasoning are unreliable because they are about
reasoning for logical and probable conclusions. The Charvaka Philosophers
believed that the only reliable knowledge about the world and reality lies in
the five senses. Human life begins in the world and ends in the world, so
people should try to get as much bodily pleasure out of this life as they can. Western
Materialism: Democritus the Greek philosopher believed that reality could
be explained in terms of matter. The smallest pieces of matter he called
atoms. Atoms combined to form all the recognizable physical objects of the
universe. The four Characteristic of materialism: 1) Seek answers through
objective methodology; sense observation analysis and tentative conclusion.
What cannot be found out by this method cannot be known. 2) Every event has a
cause 3) Denies any form of supernatural existence or God 4) Attempts to
explain the whole exclusively in terms of its parts or units. Objections To
Materialism: Modern philosophers indicate the existence in the universe of
two irreducibly different kinds of entities: material and conscious non
material. Reality depends on the mind. Materialists argue that the states of
the consciousness are really states of the brain, which is a material organ.
Conscious decisions such as thoughts, dreams, hopes, and feelings are a
functions of the material brain. Brain states can be felt, seen and touched
whereas the conscious experience cannot. Conscious experiences have no
location, colour or shape. Because they have such different qualities, it is
only fair to conclude that conscious experiences and brain states are two
different things. The unique qualities that conscious experiences have seem to
imply that consciousness is a non material reality.
O: Idealism, Objections to Idealism,
pp. 190-199:
Idealism:
the belief that reality is essentially idea and mind rather than matter. An
idealists uses mental or spriritual force to account for the order they see in
the universe. They conclude that the universe must be mental: the universe is
not matter, but only idea. These are the people who believe that the Modern
Atomic Theory (everything is made up of matter) does not account for
everything because they believe the world is made up of ideas, not matter.
Plato:
first formulized this belief. He believed that we as individual entities (our
bodies) are merely shadows of reality and the perfect form or ideal behind
each entity is what makes the entity understandable to the human mind.
Saint Augustine:
portrayed the Christian thought of idealism. He warned us to beware of the
world of flesh because it is only temporary and what is real is the spiritual
world because we are ultimately destined to be citizend of the spiritual world
of God.
George Berkely:
founder of modern realism. He claimed that the conscious mind and its ideas or
perceptions are the only reality. He did not deny the reality of the world but
claimed that all our interactions with the external world consists of the
sensations and perceptions of our senses. Berkely said that we have no reason
to postulate the existence of any external physical reality because all that
exists are the mental sensations and ideas that we experience and the minds in
which we experience them.
Subjective Idealism:
the world consists of my own mind and things that are dependent on it. Any
object that I experience is the sum of my perceptions of that thing. Only what
I personally experience exists.
Objective Idealism:
is independent of certain perceptions that I have.
Ex. A classroom is a
collection of perceptions therefore it must be dependent on mind – if not your
own then some other mind; for Berkeley the other mind was the mind of God.
Vasubandhu:
holds the view for Eastern idealism. He claims that all we perceive are
sensations within us so we are not justified to conclude that it is external
objects which cause these sensations. He claims reality to be like a dream
because our dreams are not external, existing or physical and yet they can
affect us physically, like sexually arousing us. The things we see, hear,
feel, touch, and smell only exist in our minds and yet we are affected
physically; just as in real life what we perceive only exists in our minds yet
we get affected physically. He tells us that the reason why we can’t tell the
world around us is unreal because we have simply not awaken from this dream
world that we live in from day to day. He says that by practising meditation
we can awaken our minds from this dream world.
What is idealism? Is there a universal law
at work in the universe? Is relationship among things the only meaningful
reality? Is anything understood apart from something else? Does idealism
encourage withdrawl from the world?
