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The Cold War
West Berlin residents await supplies from 1948 Airlift
I. Opposing Perspectives
A. Alliance of Britain and U.S. with Soviet Union was pragmatic: need to defeat Germany
1. Lack of trust of Stalin. Neither Churchill nor FDR told Stalin about the atomic bomb
2. Many Allied leaders hoped USSR could be persuaded to join a new, stronger League of Nations organization
B. Communist leaders feared capitalist nations
1.Expected for European and then world domination by communism.
2. Hoped for collapse of capitalist economies and societies
II. United Nations Formed
A. U.S., Britain, China, and Russia met in 1944 to discuss plans for new organization to replace League of Nations
B. In April 1945, San Francisco Conference formed U.N.
1. Security Council (11 members) with veto power and permanent seats for five major powers (U.S., France, Britain, China, and USSR).
2. Secretariat, headed by Secretary-General, to handle day-to-day affairs
3. General Assembly with delegates from each nation. Three votes to USSR as result of Yalta Conference promise
4. International Court of Justice to deal with legal disputes between members
III. Problems with USSR
A. Free elections promised in Poland by Stalin following the war
1. Communist government formed with no elections
2. Border nations pressured into establishing communist governments
B. Churchill responded with "Iron Curtain" speech in March 1946, declaring that USSR's intentions were to control Eastern European and expand power throughout the world
C. American diplomat George Kennan proposed a "containment" policy to prevent spread of communist ideology.
D. Truman Doctrine--Truman asked for major economic aid to Greece and Turkey to oppose communism
E. Marshall Plan--Western Europeans nations provided $12 billion to rebuild economies and resist Soviet pressures
IV. European Crises
A. Berlin Blockade and Airlift
1. Partition of Germany among Allies had resulted in Berlin being a divided city within the Soviet sector.
2. In June 1948, Soviets blockaded West Berlin and halted all traffic into the city.
3. Allies (U.S., France, and England) responded by airlifting massive amounts of food, coal, and other supplies to keep West Berlin open.
4. Soviets backed down and allowed traffic to resume
B. Formation of NATO--Twelve nations (10 European nations plus Canada and the U.S.) joined in April 1949 in an attempt to establish collective security and resist Warsaw Pact nations expansion
V. Second Red Scare
A. Loyalty checks of government workers begun in 1947 because of fear of communist infiltration
B. House Un-American Activities Committee held numerous public hearings and ruined reputations of blacklisted individuals, including many from TV, radio, and the movies.
C. Alger Hiss, former State Dept. diplomat, accused of disloyalty by Whittaker Chambers, a confessed Soviet spy.
1. Hiss sued Chambers for libel, but was convicted of perjury in 1950
2. Democrats, many of whom supported Hiss, were seen as soft on communism
D. Sen. Joseph McCarthy began to speak out against communist influence in the government with a speech in February 1950 in which he contended that the State Dept. was riddled with communists
E. McCarran Internal Security Act (1950) required communist and "communist-front" organizations to register with the Justice Dept.
1. Membership lists and financial statements were required
2. President was given broad powers to detain potential enemies
3. Truman vetoed the bill as "a long step toward totalitarianism" but it was passed over his veto.
F. Ethel and Julius Rosenberg arrested, tried, and executed in 1951 for providing atomic secrets
THE KOREAN WAR..THE WAR AGAINST COMMUNISM
Key Events in the Korean War
American soldiers and Korean civilians pass each other near the 38th parallel
| Event |
Date |
Significance |
| Korea divided between North and South
| September 1945
| Following Japanese surrender, Soviets maintained military presence in the North with American troops in the South. Temporary border at 38th parallel established
|
| Soviets & Americans withdraw military
| 1949
| A pro-Soviet puppet government is left in charge of North Korea with a vastly superior army to U.S.-supported South
|
| North Korea invades South Korea
| June 24, 1950
| Whether North Koreans acted with Stalin's approval is still debated
|
| Truman orders air and naval support for South Korea & calls for UN intervention
| June 27, 1950
| With the Soviet Union absent from the Security Council, the U.S. was able to win agreement from UN to support South Korea. MacArthur appointed to command UN operations
|
| U.S. troops invade at Inchon
| September 15, 1950
| In surprise landing behind enemy lines, US forces push North Korean army back north of the 38th parallel
|
| Pyongyang falls to UN forces
| October 19, 1950
| North Korean capital now in UN control
|
| Chinese divisions enter fighting
| November 4, 1950
| With increased opposition, UN offensive stalls and then collapses. Chinese troops push UN forces back across 38th parallel and capture Southern capital of Seoul
|
| MacArthur declares "There is no substitute for victory"
| March 1951
| In message to House Republican leader Martin, MacArthur expresses his frustration with the limited war U.S. is fighting against communists
|
| Truman relieves MacArthur of command
| April 11, 1951
| Following several warnings about insubordination, Truman angers public (69% support MacArthur) by firing the US commander
|
| MacArthur addresses Congress after being away from the U.S. since 1935
| April 19, 1951
| In emotional speech, MacArthur declares "Old soldiers never die, they merely fade away".
|
| Negotiations begin at Panmunjon
| July 1951
| Talks drag on until 1953 and war is settled with the establishment of a DMZ (demilitarized zone) on each side of the 38th parallel
|
| Korea becomes campaign issue in 1952 presidential election
| Summer 1952
| Eisenhower pledges to go to Korea to end the war. VP candidate Nixon contends Democrats had caved in to communists in Korea and that Democrat presidential candidate Stevenson should be called "Adlai the Appeaser"
|
| Armistice formally re-established the division of Korea
| March 1953
| Formal peace treaty never signed. Over 1,000,000 Koreans and 54,000 Americans killed in conflict plus thousands who die as prisoners of war |
CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT IN AMERICA
Key Events in the American Civil Rights Movement
Martin Luther King Jr.'s first arrest, Montgomery, 1955
| Event
| Date
| Significance
|
| 14th Amendment passed
| 1868
| Constitutional amendment forbids any state from depriving citizens of their rights and privileges and defines citizenship
|
| Plessy v. Ferguson decision
| 1896
| Supreme Court rules that separate but equal facilities for different races is legal. Gives legal approval to Jim Crow laws
|
| Booker T. Washington writes Up From Slavery
| 1901
| Arguing that gradual progress is the best path for blacks, Washington focuses on job training and suggests that self-respect and self-help would bring opportunities
|
| Niagara Movements
| 1905
| W.E.B. DuBois demands immediate racial equality and opposes all laws that treats blacks as different from others. Leads to creation of NAACP in 1909
|
| Grandfather clause outlawed by Supreme Court
| 1915
| NAACP successfully challenges state laws that restricted black voting registration
|
| Race riots and lynchings claim hundreds of lives
| 1919
| Over 25 race riots occur in the summer of 1919 with 38 killed in Chicago. 70 blacks, including 10 veterans, are lynched in the South
|
| Executive Order 8802 forbids race discrimination in hiring
| June 1941
| FDR sets up Fair Employment Practices Commission to assure non-discrimination policies in federal hiring
|
| Japanese-Americans sent to concentration camps
| 1942
| Concerned over potential disloyalty, FDR allows 110,000 to be rounded up in western states (though not in Hawaii)
|
| Korematsu v. U.S.
| 1944
| Supreme Court rules that concentration camps were a wartime necessity
|
| Jackie Robinson joins Brooklyn Dodgers
| 1947
| Pasadena resident and UCLA alum Robinson breaks the color barrier by being the first black to play major league baseball in modern times
|
| Armed forces integrated
| 1948
| Pres. Truman issues executive order requiring integrated units in the armed forces
|
| Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision
| 1954
| Supreme Court reverses Plessy by stating that separate schools are by nature unequal. Schools are ordered to desegregate "with all deliberate speed"
|
| Southern Manifesto urges resistance to desegregation efforts
| 1956
| Over 100 southern members of Congress sign document attacking the Supreme Court decision. Only Lyndon Johnson, Estes Kefauver, and Albert Gore refuse to join protest
|
| Little Rock Central High School desegregated
| Fall 1957
| After Little Rock school board votes to integrate schools, National Guard troops prevent black children from attending school. 1000 federal paratroopers are needed to escort black students and preserve peace. Arkansas Gov. Faubus responds by closing schools for 1958-59 school year
|
| Montgomery bus boycott
| 1955-1957
| Rosa Parks ignites 381-day bus boycott organized by Martin Luther King, Jr.
|
| Freedom riders oppose segregation
| 1961
| Blacks and whites take buses to the South to protest bus station segregation. Many are greeted with riots and beatings
|
| James Meredith enrolls at the University of Mississippi
| 1962
| 5000 federal troops are sent by Pres. Kennedy to allow Meredith to register for classes. Riots result in 2 deaths and hundreds of injuries
|
| Desegregation drive in Birmingham
| April 1963
| King and SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference) oppose local laws that support segregation. Riots, fire-bombing, and police are used against protestors
|
| "Letter from Birmingham jail"
| April 16, 1963
| In response to white ministers who urge him to stop causing disturbances, King issues articulate statement of nonviolent resistance to wrongs of American society
|
| Gov. Wallace stops desegregation of the University of Alabama
| June 1963
| Standing in the schoolhouse door and promising segregation "today, tomorrow, and forever," Wallace is forced by Pres. Kennedy to allow blacks to enroll
|
| Medgar Evers murdered
| June 11, 1963
| Head of Mississippi NAACP is shot outside his home on the same night that Pres. Kennedy addresses the nation on race, asking "Are we to say to the world...that this is a land of the free except for Negroes"
|
| March on Washington
| August 28, 1963
| More than 200,000 blacks and whites gather before Lincoln Memorial to hear speeches (including King's "I Have a Dream") and protest racial injustice
|
| Bombing of Birmingham church
| September 1963
| 4 black girls are killed by bomb planted in church
|
| 24th Amendment passed
| January 1964
| Poll tax (which had been used to prevent blacks from voting) outlawed. Black voter registration increases and candidates begin to turn away from white supremacy views in attempt to attract black voters
|
| Civil Rights Act passed
| July 1964
| Overcoming Senate filibuster, Congress passes law forbidding racial discrimination in many areas of life, including hotels, voting, employment, and schools
|
| Mississippi Summer Freedom Project
| Summer 1964
| Civil rights workers seek to register blacks to vote. 3 are killed and many black homes and churches are burned. National outrage helps pass civil rights legislation
|
| Selma to Montgomery march
| March 1965
| King leads 54-mile march to support black voter registration. Despite attacks from police and interference from Gov. Wallace, marchers reach Montgomery. Pres. Johnson addresses nation in support of marchers
|
| Voting Rights Act approved
| August 6, 1965
| After passage, southern black voter registration grows by over 50% and black officials are elected to various positions. In Mississippi, black voter registration grew from 7% to 67%
|
| Watts Riots
| August 1965
| In first of more than 100 riots, Los Angeles black suburb erupts in riots, burning, looting, and 34 deaths
|
| Malcolm X assassinated
| February 1965
| Rejecting integration and nonviolence, Malcolm splits off from Elijah Muhammad's Black Muslims and is killed by black opponents
|
| Race riots in Detroit and Newark
| 1967
| Worst riots in U.S. history results in 43 deaths in Detroit and federal troops being called out to restore order
|
| King assassinated
| April 4. 1968
| While supporting sanitation workers' strike which had been marred by violence in Memphis, King is shot by James Earl Ray. Riots result in 125 cities
|
| Bakke v. Regents of University of California decision
| 1978
| Supreme Court rules that fixed racial quotas are illegal after Allan Bakke is denied admission to UC Davis medical school even though his grades and scores were higher than most minority applicants admitted
|
| Los Angeles riots
| May 1992
| Following acquittal of officers who beat Rodney King, 600 buildings are torched and 50 people killed, and $1 billion in damage recorded |
THE 1960s
John F. Kennedy at Democratic Convention, Los Angeles, 1960
(Paul Schutzer, Life Magazine 1961 ©Time, Inc.)
I. The New Frontier of John F. Kennedy (1961-1963)
A. JFK defeated Richard Nixon in 1960 in a very close election partially decided by a series of televised debates
B. Spirit of optimism and Camelot inspired Kennedy's supporters and frustrated opponents.
C. Inauguration speech heralded new approaches
1. "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country."
2. Promised a landing on the moon by the end of the decade
3. Strong challenge to the Soviet bloc to respect human rights D. Success and failures of New Frontier
1. Domestic
a) Promoted economic expansion by cutting taxes and holding down prices. Economy boomed thorough the 1960s
b) Many domestic programs proposed to address civil rights, Medicare, education issues. Very few actually won Congressional approval. 2. Foreign
a) Alliance for Progress--economic aid for Latin American nations
b) Peace Corps--paid volunteers 11¢ a day to assist underdeveloped nations with education, economic, and health programs
c) Bay of Pigs invasion (April 1961)--Failed invasion by anti-Castro Cuban-Americans embarrassed JFK as the CIA had trained and financed the mission
d) Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962)--Soviets placed offensive missiles in Cuba. U.S. used diplomatic and military pressure (embargo of ships bound for Cuba). After tense two-week period, Soviets removed missiles.
e) Berlin Visit (1962)--JFK declared "I am a Berliner" to huge crowd in challenge to Soviet presence and response to building of the Berlin Wall ("For those who say communism is a better system, let them come to Berlin")
f) Vietnam Quagmire (see Vietnam War chart). JFK continued Eisenhower's policy of support for anticommunist forces in Southeast Asia to prevent "domino effect" of nations falling under communist control D. Kennedy's assassination (November 22, 1963) in Dallas, Texas by Lee Harvey Oswald (a pro-Castro malcontent) ended his presidency, about which historians have widely differing assessments.
II. Johnson Presidency (!963-1969)
A. LBJ pushed through more domestic legislation than any 20th century president except FDR
1. Declared a war on poverty and creation of a Great Society
a) Medicare and Medicaid programs
b) VISTA--domestic Peace Corps
c) New cabinet offices created in Transportation and Housing and Urban Development
d) Head Start programs to aid underprivileged children
e) Food Stamp aid to help poor families
2. Significant civil rights legislation passed through Congress, including Voting Rights Act and Civil Rights Acts B. Urban unrest
1. Watts Riot (1965) resulted in 34 deaths and $35 million damage and demonstrated frustration of urban blacks with unemployment and police practices
2. Riots followed in black neighborhoods in Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Newark, and Jacksonville from 1965-1967.
3. King's assassination in April 1968 further antagonized racial tensions. National Commission concluded "Our nation is moving towards two societies, black and white, separate and unequal."
C. Foreign problems
1. U.S. invasion of Dominican Republic to bolster pro-American dictator put down revolt but weakened LBJ's credibility in foreign affairs
2. Vietnam (see Vietnam War chart). Because of criticism, LBJ announced on March 31, 1968 he would not seek second full term as president in 1968 election.
III. Countercultural Movements
A. Port Huron Statement (1962)--group of young intellectuals formed the SDS (Students for a Democratic Society) and set out an agenda for societal reform, that included student rights, economic justice, and anti-nuclear war views
B. Free Speech Movement (1964) begun at UC Berkeley by Mario Savio in protest of university policies spread to other universities as general student unease focused on anti-establishment sentiments.
C. Radicalization of American students led to challenge to Establishment norms and laws
1. Youth culture openly scornful of middle class values
2. Increased and public use of hallucinogenic drugs
3. Rise of hippies ("tune in, turn on, drop out") led to development of communes and other counterculture movements
4. Rock and folk music reflected iconoclastic views of the counter culture.
a) Rock groups such as the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and the Doors expressed mystical approach that embraced drugs and Eastern religions as well as themes of anger, frustration, and rebelliousness
b) Folk singers (Joan Baez, Bob Dylan) expressed explicit radicalism and challenged traditional mores.
D. New militancy among ethnic groups (Native Americans and Hispanics) and feminists also challenged values and laws through affirmative action and university programs that focused on correcting past abuses and stridency in pushing for equal treatment and legal protection
THE VIETNAM WAR.. A CONTROVERSIAL WAR
The Vietnam War
| Event
| Date
| Location
| Significance
|
| Democratic Republic of Vietnam established
| 1945
| Vietnam
| With defeat and withdrawal of Japanese, Ho Chi Minh leads new state with 15,000 French soldiers present |
| Ho retreats to hills
| 1947
| Vietnam
| French seek to depose Ho who leads Viet Minh troops in opposition to French colonial presence
|
| French suffer huge defeat as 12,000 troops surrender and withdraw from Indochina
| May 7, 1954
| Dienbienphu
| Although U.S. paid 80% of French costs, Eisenhower refused to send troops to Vietnam
|
| Geneva Accords establish temporary division of Vietnam at 17th parallel
| July 1954
| Geneva, Switzerland
| Vietnam is divided into two nations with Ho leading the north and Ngo Dinh Diem leading the "free" South. Promise of free elections in 1956
|
| Diem opponents form National Liberation Front (NLF)
| 1960
| South Vietnam
| Communists and others attempt to overthrow Diem and unify Vietnam
|
| Diem overthrown and assassinated
| November 2, 1963
| Saigon
| With U.S. approval and support, Diem is replaced with military junta. 16,000 American military advisors in Vietnam
|
| Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
| August 5, 1964
| Washington, D.C.
| Following conflict between U.S. destroyers and North Vietnamese gunboats, Pres. Johnson is given authority to "prevent further aggression." Measure passes Congress 416-0 in House and 88-2 in Senate
|
| Johnson defeats Goldwater for presidency
| November 1964
| U.S.
| Portrayed as peace candidate, Johnson scores huge victory with 61% of the vote
|
| Johnson orders bombing of North Vietnam after attack at Pleiku kills 7 U.S. soldiers
| February 1965
| Vietnam
| In retaliation for Communist attack on U.S. unit, LBJ authorizes attack, but stops short of all-out bombing
|
| 20,000 U.S. troops sent to support South Vietnam
| April 1, 1965
|
| Violating his promises, LBJ raises U.S. troop level to 100,000 to fight Viet Cong
|
| Tet Offensive begins
| January 31, 1968
| Vietnam
| Viet Cong forces launch massive attack on American positons throughout Vietnam. LBJ's popularity ratings drop to 35%
|
| My Lai Massacre
| March 16, 1968
| Vietnam
| Lt. William Calley leads unit which kills at least 175 unarmed Vietnamese civilians. Calley is later court-martialed and convicted, though none of his superiors are charged
|
| LBJ announces withdrawal from 1968 presidential race
| March 31, 1968
| White House, Washington, D.C.
| Johnson announces end of bombing and calls for peace talks after embarassing performance in New Hampshire primaries
|
| Paris Peace talks begin
| May 1968
| Paris
| Longest war in U.S. history begins winding down
|
| Nixon defeats Humphrey and Wallace
| November 1968
| U.S.
| Nixon wins with 43.4% of popular vote
|
| U.S. begins secret bombing of North Vietnam and Cambodia
| March 1969
|
| Nixon avoids antiwar protests by not telling Congress or people about bombings
|
| Nixon announces withdrawal of 60,000 U.S. ground troops
| September 1969
|
| First reduction of U.S. troops since start of war
|
| U.S. troops enter Cambodia
| April 1970
| Cambodia
| Despite Nixon pledges that U.S. troops were withdrawing from Vietnam, Cambodia invasion and bombing brought huge domestic opposition
|
| Kent State Massacre
| May 4, 1970
| Ohio
| National Guard forces kill four students protesting Vietnam involvement
|
| Congress repeals Tonkin Gulf Resolution
| June 24, 1970
| Washington, D.C.
| In 81-10 vote, Senate repeals authorization of U.S. involvement
|
| Laos invaded
| February 1971
| Laos
| U.S. and South Vietnamese forces make incursion to "protect withdrawal of U.S. forces"
|
| Pentagon Papers released
| June 1971
| New York
| New York Times begins publication of secret war study
|
| North Vietnamese troops invade South
| March 1972
| Vietnam
| U.S. responds by widespread bombing of North, including bombing of Hanoi and mining of Haiphong Harbor
|
| Largest bombing of North Vietnam
| December 17, 1972
| North Vietnam
| American B-52s begin largest bombing of war, losing 15 B-52s
|
| Cease-fire accord achieved
| January 27, 1973
| Paris
| All fighting to stop and American prisoners of war to be released by North Vietnam
|
| Nixon resigns presidency
| August 1974
| White House, Washington, D.C.
| Under pressure from members of his own party, Nixon ceases fight over Watergate scandal
|
| North Vietnamese forces take Saigon
| April 30, 1975
| Saigon, South Vietnam
| Communist forces occupy South, renaming Saigon Ho Chi Minh City. U.S. troops evacuate American embassy as South Vietnamese flee
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